Cosmos in Indo-European paganism

All Indo-European peoples lived according to the principle of cosmic order: from Ireland and Scandinavia in the west, to Persia, India, and the borders of China in the east. In this blog, we look at the Vedic religion, from which the oldest religious text in the world originated. From there, we derive the basic principles of the Indo-European religion, and provide examples of this from other Proto-Indo-European peoples. 

Around 3000 BC, the cultures of the Yamna horizon migrated from the Pontic-Caspian steppe to Europe. They were speakers of the Proto-Indo-European language, the precursor of the languages spoken today in much of Europe. They brought the Indo-European cultures that developed into what we know as the Celts, Germans, Vikings, Balto-Slavs, Greeks, Romans, and Iberians. 

A part of this group then migrated from Central Europe back to the east, towards the Ural Mountains. From 2200 BC, the Sintashta culture developed in this area. This region is considered the birthplace of the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European language family, which split into the Indo-Aryan and Iranian branches between 2000-1600 BC.

The Indo-Aryan people spoke an early form of Sanskrit. These people migrated in waves from 2000 BC towards Central Asia, Pakistan, and Northwest India. They brought their religion, which mixed with the religious practices of the inhabitants of the Indus Valley. In texts in Vedic Sanskrit, these people called themselves Aryans, hence we will also use this name despite the negative connotations associated with it in the 20th and 21st centuries.

For centuries, the Indo-Aryans orally passed down their stories, myths, and religious dogmas to each other. Between 1500 and 1000 BC, they wrote these down for the first time in a collection of hymns: the Rigveda. The Rigveda is one of the oldest Indo-European texts that has survived, and the oldest religious scripture in the world.

Due to this early date, the Rigveda provides a unique insight into an ancient Indo-European religion. By comparing the texts and principles of the Vedic religion with later myths and religious expressions of other Indo-European peoples, we can reconstruct some concepts from the Proto-Indo-European religion.

In the Vedic religion, Rta refers to the cosmic order, truth, or the regular operation of the universe. It is a principle that determines the balance in nature and in moral matters and is one of the cornerstones of the Rigveda. The gods are connected to Rta, but do not stand above it.

Rta assumes that all things in the universe are continuously in motion (gati), both physical things such as celestial bodies or the ocean, and non-physical things, such as moral progress. All elements in the world work harmoniously together according to the cosmic order (samghatna), through the power of rta both nature and social structures exist in balance and cooperation. The course of events, both in nature and in life, is predestined by the inevitable laws of cause and effect (niyati).

Rta thus governs both the physical world and the moral and social spheres, where movement, cooperation, and destiny are regulated by this universal order.

Two concepts that we will return to shortly are inextricably linked with Rta: dharma and karma. Dharma are the rules or principles that support the cosmic order, while Karma are the actions of an individual that affect how that order manifests.

The word Rta and the Avestan equivalent aṣ̌a are derived via the Proto-Indo-Iranian *Hr̥tás ('truth') from the Proto-Indo-European *h₂r-tós / *xartus ('correct, connected, right, true', from the verb stem *h₂er- 'fit, regulate, arrange').

Beings fulfill their true nature when they follow the path laid out by the laws of rta, the cosmic order. If they do not follow these laws, chaos and suffering arise.

It is therefore essential to align your actions with this order, which is called dharma, to ensure your own well-being. Dharma includes the rules, principles, or prescriptions that support the rta. When someone does not adhere to these cosmic laws, adharma arises, leading to a disruption of the natural balance and causing misery and adversity.

A number of important dharmic concepts are reciprocity, hospitality, and the existence of classes. We will return to these later in this text.

The word dharma comes from the Proto-Indo-European verb *dʰer- (‘to support, to hold’).

Rta is the cosmic order. Dharma are the rules or principles that support this order. In the later Vedic period, the emphasis shifted from the gods as executors of ṛta to the individual, who had to support ṛta through their actions. 

This led to more focus on human ethical responsibility and guilt. The concept of Karma plays a central role in this. Karma means "action" and refers to the actions a person takes, which can be in line with dharma (the right path) or go against it. These actions have a cause-and-effect relationship with the happiness or suffering that one experiences in life.

The word karma probably originated from the Proto-Indo-European verb *kʷer- (‘to do, make, build’). Interestingly, in the Proto-Celtic language, this developed into the word *kʷaryos, meaning cauldron. The cauldron was an essential part of Celtic spirituality, think of the Gundestrup cauldron but also the motif of the cauldron of rebirth.

In the Rigveda, Brahman was originally a concept that referred to the spiritual power of rituals, prayers, and mantras. It was the energy released by the proper execution of these sacred acts, where the word, especially in hymns and offerings, served as a source of power.

Brahman was directly related to ṛta, the cosmic order, because performing rituals according to the correct rules (dharma) was considered essential for maintaining ṛta. Through the power of Brahman, via correct rituals, the harmony in the cosmos was supported and confirmed, keeping the natural and moral order intact. In other words, Brahman reinforced and protected ṛta through ritual precision.

In the later Vedic period, Brahman acquired a more philosophical meaning and was considered the ultimate, invisible reality that permeated the entire universe. Here, Brahman was seen as the fundamental essence of everything, the source from which all existence emerges. This broader, metaphysical concept of Brahman, however, remained closely connected to ṛta, because ṛta was the manifestation of this deeper, universal truth. 

Brahman became the underlying force behind both the visible cosmos and the laws that governed this order (ṛta). The concept of Brahman thus evolved from ritual power to the universal source of all reality, but remained linked to ṛta as the manifestation of cosmic and moral order.

The word brahman comes from the Proto-Indo-European verb *bʰerǵʰ- ('to become high, rise, elevate) plus the suffix *-mn̥, creating a noun with a meaning like 'growth, expansion, creation, development'.

In the early Vedic period, the atman was the breath of life or the inner essence of an individual. It is what made a person alive, and a manifestation of the universal life force. It is an individual expression of the universal order of the rta.

In the later Vedic period, especially in the Upanishads, Ātman develops into a much deeper philosophical concept. Here Ātman is not only the individual soul but is also seen as identical to Brahman, the ultimate reality. In this period, life and the cosmos are understood as an expression of the fundamental unity between Ātman and Brahman, with ṛta still representing the cosmic order maintained by this unity. 

Living by ṛta through Dharma and understanding one's own Ātman as part of Brahman is essential for spiritual enlightenment.

The word atman is derived from the Proto-Indo-European word *h₁éh₁tm̥ ('to blow'), just like the Ancient Greek ἀτμός ('smoke'), the Dutch adem, and the Welsh awel ('wind').

The Vedic religion developed a number of clear concepts about the cosmic order. This cosmic order was also present in other Indo-European cultures. Two peoples clearly wrote down their vision of the cosmic order: the Persians and the Greeks.

Above we already read that the Indo-Iranian branch of the Proto-Indo-European language split into an Indo-Aryan and an Iranian branch. The speakers of the Proto-Iranian language settled on the Iranian plateau, the present-day Iran, Afghanistan, and Pakistan. Towards the end of the 2nd millennium BC and the beginning of the 1st millennium BC, various Iranian peoples emerged, such as the Medes and the Persians.

The Persians also transmitted their religious dogmas orally, to such an extent that the main source on the Old Persian religion, the Avesta, was only written down in the 6th century AD. The Avesta is a scripture of the Zoroastrian religion. Nevertheless, it has preserved many elements of ancient Persian paganism.

In the ancient Persian religion, the idea of a universal order also played an important role, with the divine powers maintaining the natural and moral order. Asha was an expression of the right way of living and the correct execution of rituals and moral actions. 

These early ideas were further developed in Zoroastrianism, where Ahura Mazda, the supreme god, became the embodiment of Asha. His struggle against Angra Mainyu (the evil spirit, representing chaos and lies) became a fundamental theme of the religion, with the followers of Ahura Mazda being called to connect with Asha to maintain order in the cosmos and in their lives.

The early Greek ideas about order played a central role in the emergence of their philosophical and scientific worldview. The word cosmos itself literally means "order" or "ordered world," and it stood in contrast to chaos, which refers to disorder or the original primordial state without structure.

Thales of Miletus (624-546 BC) attempted to explain natural phenomena without resorting to mythological explanations. He introduced the idea that there is a basic principle (archê) that forms the underlying substance of everything in the universe. For him, this was water, which he saw as the source of all life and order in nature.

A student of Thales, Anaximander, proposed that there was an unlimited and undefined principle, which was the source of everything: the apeiron. He believed that the universe developed from the apeiron and that the cosmos had an ordered structure, governed by natural laws that ensure the elements remain in balance.

Heraclitus (535-475 BC) introduced the concept of logos ('word') as the universal law or rational principle that governs the continuous change and unity of opposites in the universe. Logos was the link between rational language and the rational structure of the world. For him, the world was constantly in motion (panta rhei), yet governed by an underlying order, the logos, which keeps everything in balance.

This theory was elaborated by the Stoics. They saw the logos as the divine reason that governs the world, and it was the goal of humans to live in accordance with this reason. By acting rationally and morally, one maintained the order of the cosmos.

The logos is comparable to ṛta because it involves both physical and moral order: everything, from natural phenomena to human actions, must happen in harmony with the logos. For Heraclitus, the logos was responsible for the unity of opposites in the world. The world is full of conflict and change, but this movement takes place within an ordered whole governed by the logos.

In Vedic thought, ṛta has a strong religious character, while in Greek philosophy the logos is seen as a rational and often pantheistic principle (the divine is present everywhere in nature and forms the essence of everything that exists).

Words had important meaning and high value for the Proto-Indo-Europeans.

We already see this in the Rigveda: the hymn and the offering to the gods were equally important to appease the gods. The words of poets created truth. On holidays, everyone tried to get the attention of the gods at the same time, and therefore poets were very well paid. This appreciation for poets and storytellers is also seen in Old Irish society, where the poet (fili) even had the status of a nobleman outside his tribe.

However, the word was not only important in religious or mythical contexts. Oral agreements were the cornerstone of society. These agreements were usually sealed by swearing an oath. Therefore, it is also said that the Indo-European society was oath-bound.

If you broke these agreements, it disrupted the cosmic order and you would be punished.

The hymns of the Rigveda provide a clear picture: at the moment a person invokes a god correctly, and offers correctly (think of the Brahman), he gets something back from this god. Thus, a circle of giving, receiving, and giving again is created. 

This concept of reciprocity was very important in many Indo-European cultures, not only in relation to the gods but also in relation to other people. The Latin concept Do ut des ("I give, so that you give") is a good example of this.

The right to hospitality is also based on this reciprocity and was important among all Indo-European peoples. The Vedic people knew atithi, the Greeks xenia, the ancient Irish wrote laws about it, and the Scandinavian sagas are full of examples about (the refusal of) hospitality.

These rules probably originated in the time when the people of the Yamna horizon migrated into Europe from the steppes from 3,000 BC. This happened in smaller groups and often these groups moved through regions where related tribes had already settled. These relatives were obliged to receive the travelers as guests, with the knowledge that they would also be welcome when they migrated again.

This principle is also referred to as the *ghósti-principle. The Proto-Indo-European word *ghós-ti- probably originally meant both “guest” and “host,” emphasizing the reciprocity of this relationship. Guests and hosts had a mutual relationship based on agreements and gifts. The giving and receiving of favors were accompanied by rituals that obliged the guest to always be hospitable to his host in the future.

This obligation could even be passed down from generation to generation. For example, in the stories of Homer, the warriors Glaukos and Diomedes stopped fighting and exchanged gifts when they discovered that their grandfathers once had a guest-host relationship. 

Violations of these obligations were seen as immoral, illegal, and unholy. In Irish law, refusing hospitality was even considered a crime equivalent to murder. Killing a guest was also viewed with great abhorrence, as was abusing hospitality.

Reciprocity and hospitality were thus important rules that supported the cosmic order.

The French scholar Georges Dumézil divided society into three classes: the spiritual class (priests and kings), the warrior class, and the peasant class. His theory has been very influential but is also vaguely defined and broad. Nevertheless, we can find these classes in many Indo-European societies.

People from a lower class could enter into a patron-client relationship with people from a higher class. The patron offered the client protection and economic support, while the client, in return, provided loyalty, services, and sometimes political support. This relationship was based on trust and personal obligations and was essential for social stability and networks. In exchange for protection and help, clients could, for example, work for the patron, follow him into battle, or support him in political ambitions.

A good example of this is the Roman patronus-cliens relationship, which certainly existed before 400 BC. The clientes were a kind of serfs of the patronus. They received support in the form of money or food, and legal assistance, in return, they accompanied the patronus in important public matters and supported him.

Such arrangements are also recorded in Old Irish laws. One had to have at least five free and five unfree clients to gain the status of lord (flaith). The flaith gave his clients cattle, or a piece of land, in exchange for rent, hospitality, and other services. Because the client did not have to give all his earnings to his lord, he had the opportunity to grow in status and eventually take on clients himself.

In this patron-client relationship, too, the importance of reciprocity as support for the cosmic order emerged.

In addition to religious dogmas, philosophical treatises, and legal agreements, mythology was also permeated with the concept of cosmic order, and what happens if someone did not adhere to it. It takes a bit more effort to derive these concepts from mythology, but below are some examples.

The Fates played an important role in both Greek mythology (the Moirai) and the Scandinavian (the Norns). 

The Moirai consisted of Clotho ('spinner'), who spun the thread of a person's life, Lachesis ('allotter'), who measured the thread, and Atropos ('inevitable'), who cut the thread. The idea of moira was about what someone fairly deserves in life, such as happiness, success, or resources. If someone received more than they were entitled to, it was seen as a disruption of the natural order. Although it was possible to receive more than your fair share, it would lead to severe punishment or negative consequences, as it went against the balance and rules of life. This is thus a form of adharma.

The Norns consisted of Urðr ('that which has happened', the Old English Wyrd), Verðandi ('that which is happening') and Skuld ('that which must be'). Therefore, it is also thought that they refer to past, present, and future, but that is not certain. They spin the threads of life at the source of the world tree Yggdrasil.

A verse from the poetic Edda describes how the Norns “with strength wove the web of fate”. This may imply that the Norns not only weave the fate of individuals but also events that affect the community, such as the fate of a city. This might be the basis of the later neopagan Web of Wyrd.

The concept of the Fates is related to niyati, the concept of rta that the course of events is predestined and fixed. Additionally, it shows how the individual (the atman) relates to the all (the brahman).

All people had to pursue the cosmic order. Both Greek and Norse cosmology knew a 'guardian spirit' that guided individuals in pursuing rta: the daimon (Greek) or the fylgja/hamingja (Norse).

The ancient Greeks believed that everyone had their own daimon. The daimon was a kind of intermediary between the gods and a person and influenced one's fate, choices, and moral development. In the philosophy of Plato and Socrates, the daimon is seen as an inner voice or moral guide that helps in making decisions. The daimon is not necessarily good or evil but can exert both positive and negative influence, depending on the actions of the person.

Hamingja refers to a form of personal luck power or spiritual energy that influences prosperity and success and is also transferable within families. Because the hamingja could be inherited from your relatives, it was also dependent on the deeds of your ancestors.

Fylgja is a personal protective spirit or companion that often appears in animal or female form and reflects an individual's fate; it can symbolize someone's destiny or impending danger. Both concepts are closely linked to a person's well-being and fate, with the hamingja more focused on success and protection, while the fylgja is seen as a manifestation of the soul or destiny. In both cases, spiritual guidance and protection play an important role in a person's life.

Thus, the daimon, fylgja, and hamingja helped the individual to become a better person.

The myth of Daidalos and Ikaros was widely known in the classical world and was told by (Pseudo-)Apollodorus and Ovid, among others. 

Daidalos was a brilliant craftsman from Athens. When his nephew Perdix surpassed him by inventing the saw and a compass, Daidalos became jealous and pushed him over the edge of the Acropolis. Pallas Athena turned the boy into a partridge to save him. Due to this attempted murder, Daidalos had to leave Athens, and he settled in Crete, where King Minos ruled.

Minos defied Poseidon, the god of the sea, by sacrificing a gray bull instead of a white one. As punishment, the gods drove Minos' wife mad, and she desired to have sex with this sacrificial bull. Daidalos made a wooden substitute. From this indulgence, the Minotaur was born, for which Daidalos built a labyrinth.

Minos imprisoned Daidalos because he knew the secret of the labyrinth. But the clever inventor made two sets of wings, one for himself and one for his son Ikaros, to escape. He urged the boy not to fly too low, so the wings wouldn't get wet, and not to fly too high. Ikaros ignored his warnings and soared too high, causing the sun to melt the wax that held the feathers together, and he crashed.

This story illustrates how disrupting the cosmic order (rta) will always have consequences and that these consequences will not always be immediately apparent.

The cosmic order stands for structure and beauty, and our goddess dresses bring that same harmony to your wardrobe. In Indo-European rituals, women played a crucial role as the link between mortals and gods. For these sacred moments, our ancestors dressed their best, a tribute to their important task. The dresses shown in this blog are designed to highlight your own beauty and exude strength and elegance. They are perfect for both ritual occasions and everyday use, so you are always connected to your inner goddess.