Pagan symbolism: the Tree of Life

The tree of life is an important symbol found in numerous mythological, religious, and philosophical traditions worldwide. It often symbolizes the connection between heaven, earth, and the underworld, as illustrated by Yggdrasil in Norse mythology. Although the tree of life plays a central role within Indo-European paganism, the symbol is also present in non-Indo-European cultures, such as those of the indigenous American peoples and ancient Mesopotamia

There is much debate about the origin of the concept of the Tree of Life: some scholars argue that the symbol arose independently in different cultures, while others argue that there was mutual cultural influence. In folklore and various cultures, different representations of the tree of life appear, often associated with themess such as immortality and fertility. It is unlikely that the tree of life is an expression of an overarching global religion. 

In this blog, we will explore various Indo-European mythological traditions related to the tree of life. 

Because the tree of life is so old and widespread, it is unlikely that it had an Indo-European origin. But what is the source of this symbol?

The origin of the tree of life may have been in the Ural Mountains. Around 3000 BC, Proto-Uralic was spoken here (the mother tongue of present-day Hungarian and Finnish, among others). A group of speakers of Indo-European traveled through the Ural Mountains to Persia and India. When a group of Proto-Uralic speakers moved north to Scandinavia, they brought the tree of life to Europe. The Greek concept of the tree of life would, in that case, have been influenced by ideas from the Near East, and contact between the Proto-Uralics and the hunter-gatherers in Northern Asia facilitated spread through Asia.

Another theory, proposed by, among others, Hilda Ellis Davidson, is that the tree of life originated in Northern Eurasia. Both the Native Americans, the speakers of Proto-Uralic, the Proto-Indo-European steppe herders, and the speakers of later Indo-Aryan had (indirect) contact with the peoples from Siberia. 

Indeed, there are similarities with the Scandinavian Yggdrasil and shamanistic traditions from Northern Eurasia. Davidson suggests that this concept is based on a very old idea, possibly influenced by the North Star, which was seen as the center of the heavens. In Siberian shamanistic traditions, a central tree often serves as a means to reach the heavens. Additionally, she points to the similarities between the depiction of an eagle atop Yggdrasil and a snake that coils around the roots of the tree. These elements appear to have similarities with cosmological images from Asia. 

The cosmic order is the natural course of events in the universe. In various traditions, it is guarded by figures such as the Norse Norns, the Celtic Matres, and the Greek Moirai. In the Vedic tradition, this order is known as Rta, from the Proto-Indo-European word *h₂r-tós (Xartus), and in Greek, it is referred to as Kosmos.

Rta represents a dynamic cosmos in which both physical elements, such as celestial bodies, and abstract concepts, such as moral development, are constantly in motion (gati). All parts of the universe work harmoniously together within this cosmic order (samghatna). Thanks to the power of Rta, both nature and social structures function in balance.

The course of events is determined by the inevitable laws of cause and effect. People find their true fulfillment by acting in accordance with the laws of Rta. Ignoring this causes chaos and suffering. The rules that support Rta are summarized as dharma, derived from the Proto-Indo-European *dʰer- ('to support, to hold'). The Greeks called this Logos and based their philosophy and science on this fundamental logic.

Dharma encompasses the principles and rules that support the Rta. Not adhering to these laws results in adharma, which causes disturbances in the natural balance and leads to misery and adversity. 

The Greek word kosmos literally means "order" or "ordered world," and stood in contrast to chaos, which refers to disorder or the original primordial state without structure. 

The Aśvattha (Sanskrit: अश्वत्थ) or sacred fig is an important tree in Hinduism and is frequently mentioned in religious texts such as the Rigveda. In Buddhism, the Bodhi tree, under which Gautama Buddha attained enlightenment, is also known as the Aśvattha.

The name Aśvattha comes from Sanskrit and is composed of two words: "śva" (श्व) from a word meaning "tomorrow" or "future," and "stha" (स्थ) meaning "stand" or "remain standing." Together, Aśvattha can be translated as "that which remains standing tomorrow" or more freely, "that which remains stable in the future." An alternative interpretation is a composition between "aśva" (अश्व, "horse") and "stha," "where a horse stands."

The roots of the Aśvattha tree point to the heavens, and the branches hang downward. In this context, the tree represents the entire universe, with its roots anchored in the divine and its branches extending into the world. This symbolism indicates the connection between the transcendent and the earthly.

In the Katha Upanishad, Yama explains that the tree represents the pure, immortal Brahman, the universal source of all reality. The tree serves as a metaphor for the life cycle and symbolizes the souls that go through birth and death in a continuous cycle.

In later Hindu writings, the Aśvattha receives a different meaning. In the Bhagavad Gita, Krishna explains that the Aśvattha tree has no beginning or end. The branches, nourished by the gunas (natural qualities), spread out like the actions of people. In this text, it is a symbol for the illusions of the material world. In a spiritual sense, the tree is a metaphor for the way people become entangled in the temporary, fleeting aspects of existence. The text encourages cutting this attachment to become one with the divine.

The Aśvattha still plays a significant role in contemporary Hinduism. The Ficus religiosa is planted at temples and holy places, and dried leaves and bark of the tree are used in rituals, such as Agnihotra sacrificial fires.

The Avesta, the holy book of Zoroastrianism that has preserved many elements of the ancient Persian religion, mentions various sacred plants and trees associated with life, immortality, and healing.

The Avesta describes the haoma, from which an important ritual drink is made. The Persians believed that the haoma was medicinal and promoted fertility. It was mildly hallucinogenic, without harmful side effects. The Avestan drink made from the haoma is related to the Sanskrit soma, a ritual drink in the Vedic religion, indicating a common religious feature of the Indo-Iranian traditions that preceded Zoroastrianism.

The mythological haoma plant Gaokerena was medicinal and had the ability to grant immortality. The name Gaokerena comes from the Avestan “gao” (from the Proto-Indo-European *gʷou̯-), “cow” and “kerena,” which can possibly be traced back to the Proto-Indo-European root *ḱer-" or "ḱerh₃-," meaning "to grow" or "to arise." Alternatively, it can be interpreted as “cattle horn.”

The primeval ox Gavaevodata, created by the supreme god Ahura Mazda, was killed by the evil spirit Ahriman. From its body, the Gaokerena grew in the primordial sea Vourukasha. Ahura Mazda breathed life into the tree, from which Mashya and Mashyaana, the first two humans, were born.

The Middle Persian text of the Bundahishn tells that the mythological bird Simurgh (from the Old Persian Saena) lived in the Gaokerena. When it flew away from the tree, its branches shook, causing the seeds of the tree to spread across the world and give life to all plants and trees. Ahriman sent malicious animals, frogs, salamanders, and snakes to poison the tree. This is likely a later development in Zoroastrianism, and it is unclear if this story originated in the ancient Persian religion. Conversely, in the Norse Yggdrasil lives a bird of prey (an eagle), and the dragon Níðhöggr tries to undermine the tree.

Mashya and Mashyana , the first humans, show a parallel with Ask and Embla from Norse mythology. Both are the first humans, created to populate the earth and continue creation. Both pairs originate from nature – Mashya and Mashyana from a plant or tree, and Ask and Embla from tree trunks – and received the breath of life from divine beings (Ahura Mazda and the Amesha Spenta for the former, and Odin, Vili, and Vé for the latter). In both stories, these pairs symbolize the beginning of humanity and their connection with nature and divine creation.

The Old Saxon word Irminsûl, meaning "great pillar," holds an important place in Germanic mythology. The first part, Irmin-, means "great" and appears in various Germanic traditions. Irmin can be translated into Old Norse as Jörmunr, just like Yggr, one of Odin's nicknames.

The Saxons believed that Irminsul was a cosmic pillar supporting the heavens, and it was sometimes also considered a symbol of their tribal identity and pagan belief. It was a specific sanctuary and had a distinct cultic function. It was likely venerated with offerings and rituals as a symbol of tribal and religious unity.

Charlemagne destroyed an Irminsul sanctuary in 772 during a campaign against the Saxons. It is unclear whether this was the only Irminsul or if each region had its own Irminsul that was worshipped as a tree of life.

Yggdrasil is the immense ash tree that plays a central role in Norse cosmology. This tree of life symbolizes the universe and connects the Nine Worlds, each with their own unique characteristics and inhabitants.

The name literally means "horse of Yggr," where Yggr is one of Odin's nicknames, "the fearsome." This refers to the Poetic Edda, in which Odin sacrifices himself by hanging on a tree. From this arises the symbolism of Yggdrasil as Odin's gallows.

The main descriptions of Yggdrasil come from the Poetic Edda and the Prose Edda from the 13th century, where it is described as a giant ash, sacred to the gods, and a crucial place for their gatherings. This shows the tree not only as a cosmic center but also as a political and social hub of the gods' world.

The branches of the tree of life Yggdrasil extend high into the heavens, while its roots extend to three different locations: the well Urðarbrunnr in Asgard, Hvergelmir in Niflheim, and Mímisbrunnr, the well of wisdom in Jotunheim. 

Yggdrasil is inhabited by mythical creatures such as the dragon Níðhöggr who gnaws at the roots of the tree of life, the eagle Veðrfölnir, the squirrel Ratatoskr, and the four stags Dáinn, Dvalinn, Duneyrr, and Duraþrór. 

In the mythologies described above, the tree of life is associated with fertility and life. Interestingly, Greek mythology assigned a very different role to a sacred tree.

The goddess Hera receives a branch with golden apples from her grandmother Gaia (earth), which she plants in her garden of the Hesperides. These trees are guarded by the dragon Ladon, who deters intruders. 

A well-known story about these golden apples concerns Aphrodite, who gives Hippomenes apples to distract Atalanta during a race, so he can win her hand. Although the origin of these apples in the myth is not explicitly mentioned, it is often assumed that Aphrodite picked them from Hera's s tree.

Later, Eris steals one of the apples and engraves the words "ΤΗΙ ΚΑΛΛΙΣΤΗΙ" ("to the fairest") on it, leading to the creation of the Apple of Discord and the Trojan War. Heracles must then retrieve three of the golden apples as part of his Twelve Labors.

The garden of the Hesperides is often compared to the Biblical Eden, with the golden apples seen as parallels to the forbidden fruit of the tree in Genesis. Additionally, Ladon is often compared to the serpent from the Eden story. These associations are a major reason why the forbidden fruit in European art is often depicted as an apple, although the Bible does not specify the characteristics of the fruit.

Unlike the mythology of many other Indo-European peoples, in the Celtic mythologies there was no individual sacred tree, but trees were indeed considered sacred.

There were five sacred trees in Ireland: the Éo Rossa (a yew tree), Bile Dathi (an ash), the Éo Mugna (an oak), the Cráeb Uisnig (an ash), and the Bile Tortan (an ash). The letters of the ogham alphabet were already explained with tree names in the Middle Ages, an important source for this are the lists of the bríatharogaim (‘word-ogham’).

The Old Irish legal texts distinguish between different types of trees, the Airig Fedo (‘nobles of the forest’), Aithig Fedo (‘commoners of the forest’), Fodla Fedo (‘lower class of the forest’), and Losa Fedo (‘shrubs of the forest’). The Airig Fedo were the oak, hazel, holly, yew, ash, Scots pine, and wild apple. 

The oak was noble because of its acorns and the planks that could be made from its wood. It is prominent in other Celtic traditions and is described in historical texts, such as those by Strabo and Pliny the Elder, as a sacred tree associated with druidic rituals. The oak was the ogham letter D, “dair”, also explained as ‘highest tree’, ‘craft of a craftsman’, and ‘most crafted as a craft’.

The hazel was noble because of its hazelnuts and the rods made from its wood for building fences and enclosures. It symbolized wisdom. The hazel was the ogham letter C, “coll”, also explained as ‘most beautiful tree’, ‘friend of nuts’, and ‘sweetest tree’.

The holly was noble because the Irish made chariot shafts and spears from its wood. It was used as winter fodder for cattle. Possibly, the holly was the ogham letter T, "tinne", 'one of the three parts of a wheel', 'one of the three parts of a weapon'.

The yew was noble because various objects were made from its wood. The yew was the ogham letter I, "idad", 'oldest tree', 'most beautiful of the old', 'energy of a sick person'.

The ash was noble because various objects were made from its wood. The ash tree was the ogham letter O, Onn, 'wonder of horses', 'smoothest of craft', '(tool) of warbands'.

The Scots pine was noble because of its resin. The tree was possibly the ogham letter A, Ailm, 'loudest groan', 'beginning of an answer', 'beginning of a call'.

The apple tree was noble because of its fruits and bark (possibly for dyes). The apple tree symbolizes fertility and immortality in Celtic legends and is associated with mythological figures such as Cú Roí and Connla. The tree was possibly the ogham letter Q, Cert, which is explained as 'shelter of a madman(?)', 'nourishment of an unimportant person', and 'sediment for (dyeing?) clothing'.

Important trees are also mentioned in Middle Welsh literature. In the poem Cad Goddeu (the battle of the trees), the magician Gwydion animates trees to fight as his army. It would be interesting to compare the trees mentioned here with the bríatharogaim. Additionally, the alder was a way to recognize the mythological figure Bran (Bendigeidfran).

The Norse maple Yggdrasil connects as a tree of life the nine different worlds of the cosmos.

Ásgarðr, Home of the Aesir gods such as Odin and Thor, at the top of the cosmos.

Vanaheimr, Realm of the Vanir gods, associated with fertility and nature.

Miđgarðr, World of humans, connected to Ásgarðr via the Bifröst bridge.

Jötnheimr, Home of the giants, often in conflict with the gods.

Niflheimr, Cold, misty world of death and cold, where Níðhöggr gnaws at the roots of Yggdrasil.

Múspellsheimr, Fire world of the fire giants, important during Ragnarök.

Álfheimr, Realm of the light elves, connected with nature and magic.

Svartálfaheimr/Niðavellir, Underground world of the dwarves, masters in smithing.

Helheimr, Realm of the dead, ruled by the goddess Hel, connected with Niflheim.

The tree is nourished by three wells, Urðarbrunnr in Asgard, Hvergelmir in Niflheim, and Mímisbrunnr, in Jotunheim.

In Irish mythology, there are nine hazel trees at the well of Connla. The salmon that lived in the well ate the hazelnuts, thereby obtaining all the knowledge and wisdom of the world; whoever ate the salmon also gained this knowledge. The water of this well was a passage to the Other World.

The Otherworld or Tír na nÓg was a place of everlasting youth, beauty, health, and abundance. As such, it is comparable to the Vedic Śvetadvīpam (‘White Island’), the Greek Hyperborea, and the Scandinavian Ódáinsakr in Jötunheimr.

The tree of life, as a connection between the different worlds in the cosmos, was the symbol for stability and cosmic order. Sacrifices of both cattle and horses were essential to maintain the cosmic order. 

One of the translations of the Vedic Aśvattha is ‘where a horse stands’. The name of the Persian tree of life Gaokerena is translated as ‘cattle horn’. Yggdrasil is translated as ‘Odin's horse’ and also in Old Irish, the maple is associated with horses. This association with horses and cattle stands out to us. Since the Proto-Indo-European culture was nomadic, the Tree of Life was perhaps adopted as a symbol for permanence and immortality.

The sacrifice of horses was connected with kingship and fertility. The Vedic culture knew the Ashvamedha sacrifice, a royal ritual in which the horse affirmed the king's dominion and was meant to promote the prosperity of the land. The Romans sacrificed a horse to the god Mars in October and used the blood from its tail (or penis) to sprinkle the hearth of the Vestal Virgins, a symbol of the eternal protection and vitality of the city and the Roman Empire. In Ireland and among the Vikings, horses were also sacrificed and the meat was eaten.

The sacrifice of cattle was less closely connected to fertility and sovereignty and therefore possibly more widespread. This traces back to the Proto-Indo-European myth of Trito, the first warrior, who liberates the stolen cattle and ultimately sacrifices them to the gods to ensure the cosmic cycle of mutual obligations between humans and gods.

We have attempted to provide an overview of the possible symbolic meaning of the Proto-Indo-European Tree of Life. It is likely that the tree represents the immortal soul (*bʰerǵʰ-:). The branches and roots symbolize the cosmos (Xartus). The gods serve the cosmos. The tree nourishes itself from chaos (*ǵʰeh₂n-,) and transforms this into structure and beauty, the visualization of the cosmos. The branches of the Tree of Life are interconnected. Thus, everything is interconnected. The actions of all living beings influence how the branches bend and how the cosmos changes. Based on this philosophy, all actions have consequences, good or bad. From this arose the Vedic principle of Karma, comparable to the Old Norse Hamingja.

Outside the tree, chaos reigns. Ultimately, we too fall into chaos and are eventually reabsorbed into the cosmos when the Tree of Life absorbs its nourishment through its roots. The roots connect the Tree of Life to other worlds.

Articles depicting the Tree of Life: