Indo-European gods, culture & society

When you want to learn more about, for example, Germanic or Celtic culture, you quickly encounter the lack of written sources. And the written sources that do exist are often written by the enemy. But there are more than just written sources and archaeology. Linguistics can provide insight into the society, mythology, and religion of these mist-shrouded peoples.

Parallels can be drawn between Roman, Greek, Slavic, Germanic, Viking, and Celtic cultures. How? Because they all descend from one overarching culture, namely Indo-European. It is important that in comparative research, conclusions are not drawn too quickly; otherwise, you get strange results, such as: ‘’the Polynesian culture loved fishing and the Vikings in Iceland did too, so that creates a bond’’. 

Indo-European is a language family considered to be the origin of a large number of languages spoken today in Europe, Asia, and parts of the Middle East. It is named after the geographical region where the earliest known Indo-European languages were spoken, namely the area between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea, known as the Indo-European homelands. The Indo-European language family includes languages such as Sanskrit, Latin, Greek, Celtic, Germanic, Slavic, Persian, Hindi, and many others. These languages have several common features that point to a common origin, including similarities in grammatical structures, vocabulary, and phonetic rules. Although there is no written evidence of the spoken Indo-European, linguists have developed reconstructed proto-language forms through basic of comparative language studies. Studying Indo-European and its descendants helps us not only to better understand linguistic history but also the spread and migration of early Indo-European peoples and their influence on the cultures and languages of the world. It also helps us fill in gaps in prehistoric cultures like the Germanic and Celtic. 

The list of peoples that are part of the Indo-European language family is long. Here we limit ourselves to a few highlights with a view to our other blog posts where we exclusively highlight European historical topics. 

Among others, the ancient Indians, who settled in the Indian subcontinent and laid the basic for Indian civilization and the Sanskrit language.

This includes, among others, the ancient Persians, who settled in the Persian Empire and laid the basic for Persian culture and the ancient Iranian languages such as Old Persian and Avestan.

This includes, among others, the Romans, who laid the basic for the Roman Empire and the Latin language, from which Italian, Spanish, French, Portuguese, and other Romance languages originated.

This includes, among others, the ancient Celts, who inhabited a significant part of Western Europe and laid the basic for Celtic culture and languages such as Old Irish, Welsh, Scottish Gaelic, and Breton.

This includes, among others, the Germanic peoples, including the Old Germans, Vikings, and the tribes that later formed the basic for the modern German, English, Dutch, and Scandinavian languages.

This includes, among others, the Slavs, who spread across Eastern Europe and laid the basic for the Slavic languages, including Russian, Polish, Czech, Bulgarian, and Serbian.

The ancient Greeks, who played a significant role in the development of European culture and laid the basic for the Greek language.

The migration of the Proto-Indo-European peoples and the later Indo-European peoples is a subject studied within linguistics, archaeology, genetics, and other disciplines. Although there is still much debate and discussion, scientists have acquired various theories and insights based on different types of evidence.

According to the Kurgan hypothesis, which is one of the most accepted models, it is assumed that the early speakers of Proto-Indo-European originated from the steppe regions north of the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea. Around the 4th and 3rd millennium BC, they likely migrated westward and eastward, colonizing new areas and coming into contact with indigenous peoples.

The migration of the Indo-European peoples led to the spread of their languages and cultures over a large part of Europe, Central Asia, and parts of the Middle East. For example, the Indo-European invasion of the Indian subcontinent resulted in the emergence of Vedic Sanskrit and the development of Vedic culture.

Archaeological evidence, such as the distribution of certain material cultural artifacts, can help trace the migration routes of the Indo-European peoples. Genetic studies have also contributed to our understanding of migration patterns by analyzing DNA from modern populations and identifying genetic similarities between different Indo-European groups.

Almost all traditional peoples and languages we now know in Europe have an Indo-European basic. But there are very interesting exceptions. 

The Basques are an ethnic group primarily residing in the Basque Country, a region located in the northeast of Spain and the southwest of France. The Basque language, also known as Euskara, is an isolated language with no demonstrable relation to other language groups. 

The Hungarians, also known as Magyars, are the ethnic majority in Hungary. The Hungarian language, also called Magyar, belongs to the Uralic language family, which has no relation to the Indo-European languages.

The Finns are the largest non-Indo-European people in Scandinavia. They primarily live in Finland and speak Finnish, which also belongs to the Uralic language family.

The Sami, also known as Sámi or 'Lapps', are the indigenous people of Sápmi, a region that spans parts of Norway, Sweden, Finland, and Russia. The Sami languages belong to the Sami language family, which is also part of the Uralic language family.

Maltese is the official language of Malta. It is an Afro-Asiatic language belonging to the Semitic branch of that language family.

The Proto-Indo-European was the ancestral language for the Indo-European, estimated to have emerged around the 4th to 3rd millennium BC. However, this is only an estimate, as there are no written records of Proto-Indo-European and it can only be reconstructed on basic of comparative linguistic analysis of the daughter languages. The Indo-European is expected to have emerged around the 2nd millennium BC. 

The Indo-European culture is a hypothetical culture reconstructed on basic of comparative linguistic analysis of the Indo-European languages and the similarities between them. Although there are no direct historical accounts or archaeological evidence of the Indo-European culture itself, some cultural and social traits are inferred from linguistic reconstructions and comparisons. Here are some characteristics associated with the Indo-European culture:

One of the most striking features of the Indo-European culture is the common language family that spans a large geographical area. The Indo-European languages exhibit similar grammatical structures, vocabulary, and phonetic features, indicating a common origin.

The earliest documented Indo-European languages include Hittite, which was spoken in the ancient Hittite empire in Anatolia (modern-day Turkey), and Sanskrit, which was used in ancient India.

The Indo-European culture is believed to have had a hierarchical social structure, where social status was based on factors such as lineage, wealth, and military skills. It is thought there was a clear distinction between social classes, with an aristocratic elite and a broader peasant community. Some theories support the division between the fighting (ruling) religious and working (agricultural) classes. This was maintained until late Medieval Europe. 

The Indo-European culture is believed to have had a polytheistic religion, in which various gods were worshipped. There are common elements in the mythology and religious beliefs of the Indo-European peoples, such as the worship of the sky god and the sun, as well as an emphasis on rituals and sacrifices.

The Indo-European culture is often associated with an agrarian lifestyle, where agriculture was the primary economic activity. Grain cultivation, livestock farming, and agricultural communities were likely important aspects of daily life.

Another characteristic of the Indo-European culture is the presumed mobility and migration of the speakers of Indo-European languages. It is believed they spread over large parts of Europe, Asia, and parts of the Middle East, disseminating their languages and cultural traditions.

In general, men seem to have played a dominant role in Indo-European society, with power and authority often held by male leaders and aristocrats.

Linguistic reconstructions point to a linguistic distinction between the male and female forms of words and grammatical constructions in Indo-European languages. This may indicate some form of gender distinction and an approach to the role of women in society.

Mythological stories and religious beliefs of Indo-European peoples also indicate that there were female gods and goddesses who were worshipped, such as the goddess of fertility, agriculture, and marriage. This suggests that women may have played an important role in fertility rituals and religious practices.

Archaeological findings can also provide insight into the position of women in Indo-European society. Graves and burial finds sometimes show that women possessed certain status symbols, jewelry, and personal belongings, which may indicate social and economic positions.

When the Romans conquered neighboring peoples, they often saw their gods as another variant of the Roman gods. The Germanic peoples also possibly saw the Roman gods as another variant of the Germanic gods, which led them to use Roman god statuettes in Germania. Interestingly, they were partly correct in this. Most religions of Indo-European peoples show similarities.

There was always a contrast between the immortal gods who lived in the heavens above and the mortal humans who dwelled on the earth below. The earth was seen as a vast, flat, and round continent surrounded by water, or the ocean. Although the stars can sometimes be associated with mythical figures or stories, they had no specific cosmic significance. According to Martin L. West, the idea of the world tree was likely introduced later from North Asian cosmologies. The Greek myth may have been influenced by the Near East, while the ideas of a central pillar in the Indian and Germanic traditions likely originated from shamanistic cosmologies of the Finns and Neolithic peoples in Central and Northern Asia. Also, the concept of the cosmic egg, symbolizing the primordial state from which the universe emerges, appears in many Indo-European creation myths. One theory reconstructs a creation myth involving the twin brothers Manu- (Man) and Yemo- (Twin) as the precursors of the world and humanity, and a hero named Trito (Third) who ensured the continuity of the original sacrifice. The primordial state that may have preceded the creation process was a time of emptiness. The Vedic, Norse, and, at least partially, the Greek traditions testify to an era when cosmological elements were absent. There was no air, nor heaven. There was no sand, nor sea, nor waves, etc.

In the creation myth, the first man, Manu, and his gigantic twin brother, Yemo, travel through the universe, accompanied by the primordial cow. Manu sacrifices himself to create the world. With the help of heavenly gods, such as the sky father, the storm god, and the twins, and with the involvement of both natural elements and human physical remains, Manu becomes the first priest, initiating the sacrifice as the original condition for cosmic order. His deceased brother, Yemo, becomes the first king, while social classes emerge from different parts of his body (the priesthood from his head, the warrior class from his chest and arms, and the common people from his genitals and legs). Although there are differences between the European and Indo-Iranian versions, the primordial cow was most likely sacrificed in the original myth, giving birth to other animals and crops. This is because the pastoral lifestyle of the Proto-Indo-Iranian speakers was closer to that of the Proto-Indo-European speakers.

Manu and Yemo appear to be the main characters of a myth of the sovereign function, which serves as the model for later priests and kings. While the legend of Trito should be interpreted as a myth of the warrior function, serving as the model for all later warriors. The story of Trito served as a model for later epic myths about cattle raids and most likely as a moral justification for the practice of raiding among Indo-European peoples. In the original legend, Trito only takes back what rightfully belongs to his people, those who properly sacrifice to the gods. This forms the source of the myth surrounding cattle raiding that existed in both Germanic and Celtic traditions, for example in the Old Irish story Táin Bó Cúailnge. This was probably also the basic of the concept of a group of warriors like the Irish Fian or the Norse Berserker.

Some researchers have suggested that the original being named Yemo was actually depicted as a dual hermaphrodite rather than as a twin brother of Manu. These beings were seen as complementary to each other, intertwined in a close relationship. The Germanic names Ymir and Tuisto were interpreted as twins, bisexual or hermaphrodite. Some myths also mention a sister of the Vedic Yama, who is also considered a twin and associated with incest. According to this interpretation, the original being may have sacrificed itself or split into two, with a male half and a female half, which is a prototype of the separation of the sexes.

Words derived from the Proto-Indo-European First Priest Manu, meaning "Man" or "ancestor of humanity," include the Indian Manu, the legendary first man in Hinduism, and Manāvī, his sacrificed wife. Additionally, we have the Germanic Mannus, the mythical ancestor of the West Germanic tribes, and the Persian Manūščihr, a Zoroastrian high priest from the 9th century AD. 

From the name of the sacrificed First King Yemo, meaning "Twin," are derived the Indian Yama, the god of death and the underworld, the Avestan Yima, king of the golden age and guardian of hell, the Norse Ymir, the ancestor of the giants, and most likely Remus, who is killed in the Roman foundation myth by his twin brother Romulus. 

Finally, we have the Vedic Trita, the Avestan Thrita, and the Norse Þriði, all stemming from the First Warrior Trito, meaning "Third."

Many beliefs within the Indo-European traditions explain the origin of natural elements as the result of the original separation of Yemo: his flesh is often associated with the earth, his hair with grass, his bones with stone, his blood with water, his eyes with the sun, his spirit with the moon, his brain with the clouds, his breath with the wind, and his head with the sky. The use of animal sacrifice, where the parts are distributed according to established social patterns, as seen in ancient Rome and India, is seen as a way to restore balance in the cosmos, which is governed by the original sacrifice.

The story of Manu and Yemo has had a significant influence throughout Eurasia after the migrations of the Indo-Europeans. Different cultures have variations of this myth, with Greek, Old Russian (such as the poem about the Dove King), and Jewish versions depending on Iranian traditions. There is even a Chinese version of the myth that was introduced from ancient India. The Armenian version of the myth of the First Warrior Trito is also based on Iranian traditions, while Roman interpretations were influenced by earlier Greek versions.

The realm of the dead was often depicted as a dark underworld from which no return was possible. Many Indo-European myths speak of a journey across a river, accompanied by an old man, to reach the Other World. The Greek tradition of the dead being ferried by Charon across the river Styx likely reflects this belief, and the idea of crossing a river to reach the underworld is also present in Celtic mythologies. Various Vedic texts refer to crossing a river, such as the Vaitarna, to reach the land of the dead. The Latin word "tarentum" (grave) originally meant "crossing point". In Norse mythology, Hermóðr must cross a bridge over the river Gjöll to reach Hel, while in Latvian folk songs, the dead must cross a swamp instead of a river. The use of coins on the bodies of the deceased to pay the ferryman is mentioned in ancient Greek, Celtic, and early modern Slavic burial practices. Although the earliest coins date from the Iron Age, this may indicate an ancient tradition of making offerings to the ferryman. A recurring element in various mythologies is the presence of a gate to the Other World, usually guarded by a multi-headed dog (sometimes with multiple eyes). This dog also served as a guide and ensured that those who entered the gate could not escape. The Greek Cerberus and the Hindu Śárvara are likely derived from the word *Ḱérberos ("spotted"). Bruce Lincoln has also suggested that the Norse Garmr is related to this, although this is not linguistically supported.

The Proto-Indo-Europeans may have believed that the remote part of the earth was inhabited by a people free from the hardships and pain we experience. This common motif appears in legends such as that of the Indian Śvetadvīpam ("White Island"), where the inhabitants are as white as the moon and need no food. Or the Greek Hyperborea ("Beyond the North Wind"), where the sun shines continuously and the people "know neither disease nor bitter old age". Also, the Irish Tír na nÓg ("Land of the Young") is a mythical region in the western sea where "happiness lasts forever and there is no satiation". Another example is the Germanic Ódáinsakr ("Glittering Plains").

Various traditions show traces of an eschatological myth within Proto-Indo-European culture, in which the end of the world is described following a devastating battle. The story begins when a powerful demon, often from another and hostile tribe, takes over the rule from the community of gods or heroes (such as the Norse Loki, the Roman Tarquin, or the Irish Bres). Under his rule, the subjects are treated unjustly and forced to build fortifications, while the demon favors outsiders whom he trusts. After a particularly gruesome act, the demon is banished by his subjects and seeks refuge with his foreign relatives. A new leader (such as the Norse Víðarr, the Roman Lucius Brutus, or the Irish Lug), often the taciturn nephew or grandson (*népōt) of the banished demon, then takes the lead. The two forces come together and destroy each other in a devastating battle. The myth ends with the disruption of the cosmic order and the conclusion of a temporary cyclical period. In the Norse and Iranian traditions, the final battle is preceded by a devastating "cosmic winter."

Animism is the concept where souls or spirits exist not only in humans but also in plants, stones, or natural phenomena. The foundation of Proto-Indo-European mythology is animism. This indigenous belief in animism is still found among the descendants of Indo-European cultures. For example, in Norse mythology, the Vættir are reflections of the indigenous animistic nature spirits and gods. Trees play a central role in Indo-European cultures and are considered the dwelling place of tree spirits.

In the Indo-European tradition, storms are personified as very active, assertive, and sometimes aggressive elements. Fire and water are deified as cosmic elements that are also essential for the functioning of the household. The personified earth is associated on one hand with fertility and growth, and on the other hand with death and the underworld.

The pantheon of the Proto-Indo-European includes various reconstructed deities that are both related and associated with similar attributes and a series of myths. These deities are considered linguistic relatives, originating from a common source. Among them are the god of daylight and the sky, his partner the mother goddess of the earth, his daughter the goddess of dawn, his sons the divine twins, and a sun goddess. Some deities, such as the weather god and the shepherd god, however, appear only in limited traditions, respectively the Western (European) and the Greek-Aryan, and could possibly be later additions that did not spread across the different Indo-European dialects.

It is unlikely that the Proto-Indo-Europeans had a fixed set of gods or assigned specific numbers to them. They used the term deywós (heavenly) to refer to "a god." This term had various variants in different languages, such as the Latin deus, Old Norse Týr (< Germ. tīwaz), Sanskrit devá, Avestan daeva, Irish día, or Lithuanian Dievas. On the other hand, humans were associated with mortals and the earthly, which also formed the basic for words like "man" in different languages.

The Proto-Indo-Europeans believed that gods were free from death and disease because they were nourished by special foods not available to mortals. For instance, in the Chāndogya Upaniṣad, it is said that the gods "do not become sated by merely looking at this nectar." In the Edda, we are told that Odin, the chief god, "lives only on wine. He needs no food. Wine is both drink and meat for him." Sometimes abstract concepts could also be deified, such as the Avestan mazda (wisdom), worshipped as Ahura Mazda (Lord Wisdom), or the Greek war god Ares (associated with ruin, destruction), or the Vedic protector of treaties Mitráh (from mitrám, contract).

Gods were referred to in various ways, often with titles like "the celebrated," "the highest," "king," or "shepherd." It was believed that gods had their own language and true names. Sometimes these were kept secret from mortals. In Indo-European traditions, gods were considered "givers" or "bestowers of good things." Although certain gods were tasked with overseeing justice or contracts, most Indo-European gods did not have a fixed ethical character. Their immense power allowed them to act at their discretion; therefore, rituals, sacrifices, and hymns of worshippers were necessary to obtain favors and prosperity for the community.

The principal god in the Proto-Indo-European pantheon was the god *Dyēws Ph₂tēr, whose name literally means "Father of the Sky." He was seen as the personification of the sky. The sky was considered the dwelling place of the gods, or the heavens. Dyēus is the most documented deity among all Proto-Indo-European gods. He functioned as the gateway to the gods and was both the father of the divine twins and the goddess of dawn (Hausos), which gave him a prominent position in the pantheon. However, it is unlikely that he was their ruler or held the highest power, as Zeus and Jupiter did later.

Due to his divine nature, Dyēus is often considered "all-seeing" or "with a broad vision" in Indo-European myths. Although it is unlikely that he was specifically tasked with overseeing law and justice, as Zeus did in Greek mythology or the duo Mithra-Varuna in the Indo-Iranian tradition, Dyēus at least served as a witness to oaths and treaties.

In Greek mythology and Roman mythology, Zeus and Jupiter are considered the principal gods of their pantheons. Dyēws Ph₂tēr also appears in the Rigveda as Dyáus Pitā, but in a less prominent role as an ancestral figure mentioned in only a few hymns. There are also references to Dyēus Ph₂tēr in the Illyrian god Dei-Pátrous, as confirmed by Hesychius of Alexandria. Although the ritual expressions "Debess tēvs" in Latvian and "attas Isanus" in Hittite are not direct descendants of the formula *Dyēws Ph₂tēr, they do retain the original structure.

*H₂éusōs is reconstructed as the Proto-Indo-European goddess of the dawn. In various traditions (Indian, Greek, Baltic), the Dawn is seen as the "daughter of the sky", *Dyḗws. In these traditions, and a fourth one (Italic), the goddess of the dawn is sometimes banished or driven off the scene because she lingers too long.

An ancient nickname for the Dawn seems to have been *Dʰuǵh₂tḗr Diwós, meaning "Daughter of the Sky". She is often depicted as opening the gates of heaven when she appears 's in the morning. It is generally believed that Hausōs never ages and is reborn every morning. She is associated with red or golden clothing and is often depicted as dancing.

In the Rigveda, twenty-one hymns are dedicated to the dawn goddess Uṣás, and in the Avesta, the dawn goddess Ušå is also honored. Greek poetry and mythology give a prominent role to the dawn goddess Eos. Aurora, the Roman goddess of the dawn, is a reflection of the Greek Eos, but it is possible that the original Roman goddess of the dawn was still worshipped under the cultic title Mater Matuta.

The Anglo-Saxons worshiped the goddess Ēostre, who was associated with a spring festival that later gave its name to the month and eventually also to the Christian holiday Easter in English. The name Ôstarmânôth in Old High German suggests that a similar goddess was also worshipped in southern Germany. Even in the sixteenth century, the Lithuanian dawn goddess Aušra was still recognized.

*Seh₂ul and *Meh₁not are reconstructed as the goddess of the sun and the god of the moon in Proto-Indo-European mythology.

A common motif in Indo-European myths is the daily journey of *Seh₂ul through the sky on a chariot drawn by horses. Although this motif was likely inherited, it certainly appeared after the wheel was introduced in the Pontic-Caspian steppe around 3500 BC. Therefore, it is a late addition to Proto-Indo-European culture.

Although the sun was personified as an independent female deity, the Proto-Indo-Europeans also depicted the sun as the "lamp of Dyēws" or the "eye of Dyēws".

The belief that gods were rulers of nature was expressed with the suffix -nos (feminine -nā), which meant "lord of". This is reflected in names such as the Greek Ouranos (lord of rain) and Helena (mistress of sunlight), Germanic *Wōðanaz (lord of frenzy), Gallic Epona (goddess of horses), Lithuanian Perkūnas (lord of oaks), and in the Roman Neptunus (lord of the waters), Volcanus (lord of flaming fire), and Silvanus (lord of forests).

The horse twins are a duo of twin brothers that appear in almost every Indo-European pantheon. They have names that mean 'horse' (*h₁éḱwos). Although the names are not always related and no Proto-Indo-European name for them can be reconstructed.

In most traditions, the horse twins are brothers of the sun maiden or the morning goddess, and they are the sons of the sky god Dyḗws Ph₂tḗr. For example, the Greek Dioscuri (Castor and Pollux) are the "sons of Zeus"; the Vedic Divó nápātā (Aśvins) are the "sons of Dyaús", the sky god; the Lithuanian Dievo sūneliai (Ašvieniai) are the "sons of the God" (Dievas); and the Latvian Dieva dēli are also the "sons of the God" (Dievs).

The Divine Twins are depicted as young men who drive the sun across the sky, riding on horses, and sometimes they themselves are depicted as horses. They save people from deadly danger in battles or at sea. The twins are often distinguished: one is depicted as a young warrior, while the other is seen as a healer or engaged in domestic tasks. In many stories, the Divine Twins save the Dawn from a watery danger, stemming from their role as sun horses. 's At night, the horses of the sun return to the east in a golden boat, where they cross the sea to bring the sun again every morning. During the day, they travel through the sky in search of their consort, the morning star.

Similar patterns to the horse twin are found in the Anglo-Saxon Hengist and Horsa (whose names mean "stallion" and "horse"), the Celtic "Dioskouroi" who, according to Timaeus, are worshipped as a horse twin by the Atlantic Celts, the Germanic Alcis, a pair of young male brothers worshipped by the Naharvali, or the Welsh Brân and Manawydan. The horse twin could possibly be based on the morning and evening star (the planet Venus) and they often have stories where they 'accompany' the sun goddess, due to the close orbit of the planet Venus relative to the sun.

The goddess *Dʰéǵʰōm is seen as the personification of the earth. She is depicted as a large and dark abode for humans, while Dyēws is the bright sky where the immortal gods reside. *Dʰéǵʰōm is associated with fertility, growth, and also with death as the final resting place of the deceased. She was likely the wife of *Dyḗws Ph₂tḗr, the god of the sky. The connection between earth and sky relates to fertility, as crops grow from the moist earth nourished by rain from the sky. Therefore, the earth is seen as the source of good things. In old English prayers, the earth was even asked to be fruitful. Slavic farmers considered Zemlja-matushka, Mother Earth, as someone who would predict a good harvest for the community. In Greek mythology, the connection between Zeus, Semele, and Demeter is also associated with fertility and growth. These connections are also found in other cultures, such as the Vedic connection between Dyáus Pitā and Prithvi Mater, the Greek connection between Ouranos and Gaia, the Roman connection between Jupiter and Tellus Mater, and the Norse connection between Odin and Jörð. Although Odin is not exactly the same as Dyḗws Ph₂tḗr, his worship may have been influenced by a previous supreme god who did correspond. However, the earth and sky pair are not the origin of the other gods, as the divine twin and Hausos were likely conceived by Dyēws alone.

Examples of similar terms are Dheu and Zonja e Dheut in Albanian, which mean Great Mother Earth and Earth Goddess, respectively. In Lithuania, the goddess of the earth, Žemyna, is revered, and she is seen as the one who brings flowers. In Zoroastrianism, there is the concept of 'earth' represented by Zām. In Latvian mythology, Zemes Māte, Mother Earth, is one of the goddesses of death. The Hittite culture knows Dagan-zipas, the 'Genius of the earth'. In Slavic belief, Mati Syra Zemlya, 'Mother Moist Earth', is revered. Greek mythology knows Chthôn, the partner of Ouranos in the story of the Danaids. There are also the chthonic deities of the underworld. There are also possible connections between a Thracian goddess named Zemelā (*gʰem-elā) and a Messapian goddess named Damatura (*dʰǵʰem-māter), who may possibly be the origins of the Greek Semele and Demeter, respectively, but there is less certainty about this.

*Perkʷunos is a god reconstructed as the Proto-Indo-European god of lightning and storms. He was presumably depicted with a hammer or a similar weapon. Thunder and lightning had both a destructive and a fertile meaning: lightning bolts could split stones or trees but also brought fertile rain. Therefore, there was a strong association between Perkʷunos and oak trees, as oaks were most often struck by lightning. Perkʷunos was often associated with stones and wooded mountains, presumably because these forests were rich with his presence.

The motif of striking devils, demons, or wrongdoers by Perkʷunos appears in the myths of the Lithuanian Perkūnas, the Vedic Parjanya, and the Germanic Thor. It seems that these deities are relatives derived from *Perkʷunos and are limited to the European continent. There is evidence of related deities such as the Norse goddess Fjǫrgyn (the mother of Thor), the Lithuanian god Perkūnas, the Slavic god Perúnŭ, and the Hercynian mountains or forests in the Celtic tradition. The Albanian thunder god Perëndi is likely also related to Perkʷunos. In the Vedic tradition, the god of rain, thunder, and lightning, Parjányá, may also have a connection, although the Sanskrit sound laws point to a different form.

Additionally, there is another root * (s) tenh₂ ("thunder") that has related gods in the Germanic, Celtic, and Roman traditions, such as Thor, Taranis, Tonans (Jupiter), and keraunos (Zeus). According to some sources, these gods may have originated from an original epithet or epiclesis, similar to the Vedic Parjanya who is also called stanayitnú- ("Thunderer"). The Roman god Mars may also be a thematic echo of Perkʷunos, as he originally also had characteristics of thunder.

The Proto-Indo-European religions have various types of beautiful and sometimes dangerous water goddesses. Similar to the Greek naiads, the nymphs of fresh water. Corresponding motifs have been found in different cultures over a large geographic area. For example, the Vedic Apsará's often visited forest lakes, rivers, trees, and mountains and were sent by Indra to seduce men. In Ossetian mythology, Donbettyr rules over the waters and has daughters with extraordinary beauty and golden hair. In Armenian folklore, the Parik assume the form of beautiful dancing women in nature.

In other cultures as well, water goddesses are depicted as seductive maidens with long golden or green hair, such as the Slavic water nymphs víly, the Albanian mountain nymphs Perit and Zana, and the Baltic nymph-like Laumes. These beings can be both beautiful and dangerous, and sometimes have interactions with men, ranging from abductions to sexual relationships and fleeting marriages. In Breton tradition, the Korrigans are described as irresistible beings with golden hair who seduce mortal men and bring them fatal love. Other examples of water nymphs are the Norwegian Huldra, Iranian Ahuraīnī's, and Lycian Eliyana.

There is also linguistic and cultural evidence pointing to the sacred status of terrestrial waters, such as rivers and springs. These waters were collectively revered as "the waters" or individually venerated as separate entities. The cult of fountains and rivers likely existed long before the Proto-Indo-European beliefs emerged and was widespread in their traditions.

It is very likely that the Proto-Indo-Europeans believed in three goddesses of fate who determined the destiny of humanity. Although these fate goddesses are not directly confirmed in the Indo-Aryan tradition, the Atharvaveda makes a comparison between fate and weaving a thread. In nearly every other Indo-European mythology, the three fate goddesses appear.

In Hittite mythology, the Gulses are named as the goddesses who determine the individual's fate. They are often mentioned in mythical stories along with the goddesses Papaya and Istustaya, who are described in a ritual text for the establishment of a new temple using mirrors and spindles to spin the king's life thread. In the Greek tradition, the Moirai are named as those who distribute fate, and they are also called "Spinners." Hesiod names them Clotho, Lachesis, and Atropos, meaning "Spinner," "Distributor," and "Inflexible," respectively. Plato describes in his Republic that Clotho sings of the past, Lachesis of the present, and Atropos of the future.

In Roman legend, the Parcae are named as the three goddesses who govern the birth of children, with the names Nona, Decuma, and Morta. They are also associated with spinning fate. In Norse mythology, the Norns are described as three cosmic goddesses of fate sitting by the well of Urðr at the foot of the world tree Yggdrasil. They are often associated with the Valkyries, who are also called spinners. In old English texts, Wyrd is named as a unique force that "weaves" fate. Later texts refer to the Wyrds as a group of goddesses.

In other cultures, three spinning fate goddesses are also mentioned, such as in Celtic mythology, where seven goddesses weave the thread of fate. In Slavic traditions, the Russian Rožanicy, Czech and Slovak Sudičky, Bulgarian Narečnice or Urisnice, Polish Rodzanice, Croatian Rodjenice, Serbian Sudjenice, and Slovenian Rojenice appear as the three spinning fate goddesses. Albanian folklore speaks of the Fatit, three old women who appear three days after a child's birth and determine its fate with language reminiscent of spinning.

The god of prosperity, *h₂eryo-men, is reconstructed as a deity responsible for welfare and community. He is associated with the construction and maintenance of roads or paths, as well as with healing and facilitating marriages. His name is derived from the noun *h₂eryos, which refers to a "member of one's own group" or someone who belongs to the community. This root is also found in the Indo-Iranian *árya, meaning "noble" and "hospitable," and in the Celtic *aryo-, which refers to a "free man."

In the Vedic tradition, the god Aryaman is often mentioned in the Vedass and is associated with social and marital bonds. In the Iranian Gāthāss, the god Airyaman seems to refer to the broader tribal network or alliance and is invoked in prayers against disease, magic, and evil. In the mythical stories about the founding of the Irish nation, the hero Érimón is described as the first king of the Milesians (the mythical Irish), after helping to conquer the island from the Tuatha Dé Danann. He also played a role in marrying women to the Cruithnig (mythical Celtic Britons or Picts), which corresponds to the marital functions of *h₂eryo-men. Furthermore, the Gaulish personal name Ariomanus should be mentioned, which can possibly be translated as "noble-minded" and was often borne by Germanic leaders.

Some myths can be dated to the Proto-Indo-European period, as they contain both linguistic and thematic evidence of inherited motifs. For example, a story in which a mythical figure associated with thunder kills a multi-headed serpent to release accumulated water streams. A creation myth involving two brothers, where one sacrifices the other to create the world. And likely the belief that the Other World was guarded by a watchdog and could only be reached by crossing a river.

There are various schools of thought regarding possible interpretations of the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European mythology and religion. The main mythologies used in comparative reconstruction are Indo-Iranian, Baltic, Roman, and Norse, often supported with evidence from Celtic, Greek, Slavic, Hittite, Armenian, Illyrian, and Albanian traditions. Although there were historical contacts and interactions between Jewish communities and Indo-European peoples, particularly in the diaspora, there is no direct ethnolinguistic link between the Jews and Proto-Indo-European. Despite Viking mythology being relatively late, it is also considered an important source for comparative research. Thanks to the many Icelandic writings, much of Viking mythology has been preserved.

The myth of killing snakes is widespread in almost all Indo-European mythologies. The story usually revolves around a hero or god who defeats a snake or dragon. Although the details of the story may vary, there are striking similarities between the different versions. The protagonist is often a thunder god or a hero associated with thunder. The snake, the enemy of the hero, is usually associated with water and is depicted as a multi-headed creature. The myths often describe the snake as a "blocker of waters," and ultimately the many heads of the snake are crushed by the thunder god in an epic battle, releasing previously accumulated water streams. The original story possibly symbolizes the struggle between order and chaos.

In various mythologies, such as Hittite, Vedic, Greek, Germanic, and Slavic mythologies, variants of the story appear. For example, in Hittite mythology, the storm god Tarhunt kills the giant snake Illuyanka, while in Vedic mythology, the god Indra defeats the multi-headed snake Vritra. In Greek mythology, there is the legend of Zeus killing the hundred-headed Typhon, and Heracles defeating the nine-headed Lernaean Hydra. In Germanic mythology, the god Thor kills the giant snake Jörmungandr, while Sigurd in the Völsunga saga defeats the dragon Fafnir. These mythical motifs also resonate in other cultures, such as Zoroastrianism, Albanian mythology, Armenian mythology, and Shinto.

The Genesis story in Judaism and Christianity can also be seen as an allegorical retelling of the myth of slaying serpents. The idea of the depth or abyss from which God created the world can be interpreted as a reference to the primordial serpent Tiamat in Babylonian mythology.

Another retold myth is the story of flames burning underwater. It portrays a divine being called *H₂epom Nepōts ("Offspring of the waters") that resides in water and whose powers must be ritually obtained or controlled by a hero who is the only one who can come into contact with it. In the Rigveda, the god Apám Nápát is depicted as a form of fire residing in the water. In Celtic mythology, it is said that a well belonging to the god Nechtain blinds anyone who looks into it. In an ancient Armenian poem, a small reed in the middle of the sea spontaneously ignites, and the hero Vahagn emerges from it with fiery hair, a fiery beard, and eyes that shine like suns. In a ninth-century Norse poem by the poet Thiodolf, the expression "sǣvar niþr," meaning "grandson of the sea," is used as a metaphor for fire. Even the Greek tradition may contain references to the myth of a fire god dwelling deep beneath the sea. The expression "νέποδες καλῆς Ἁλοσύδνης," which means "descendants of the beautiful seas," is used in The Odyssey 4.404 as a nickname for the seals.

The legend of the ruler and the immaculate woman tells the story of a king who is saved by his virgin daughter after seeing his future threatened by rebellious sons or male relatives. Virginity likely symbolizes in the myth the woman who is loyal to no one but her father, and the child is likewise loyal only to his royal grandfather. Stories of the Indian king Yayāti, saved by his virgin daughter Mādhāvi; the Roman king Numitor, saved by his chaste daughter Rhea Silvia; the Irish king Eochaid, father of the legendary queen Medb and threatened by his sons, the findemna; as well as the myth of the Norse virgin goddess Gefjun offering land to Odin, are often cited as possible remnants of an original Proto-Indo-European motif. The Irish queen Medb could be related to the Indian Mādhāvi (whose name may refer to a spring flower, rich in honey or an intoxicating drink), both derived from the root *medʰ- ("mead, intoxicating drink").

The myth of the Founding War is presented as a conflict between the first two functions (priests and warriors) and the third function (fertility), who ultimately make peace and form a fully integrated society. In the Norse Ynglingasaga, a war is described between the Æsir (led by Oðinn and Thor) and the Vanir (led by Freyr, Freyja, and Njörðr), which ends with the Vanir settling among the Æsir. Shortly after the mythical founding of Rome, Romulus wages a battle against his prosperous neighbors, the Sabines, where the Romans abduct their women to eventually incorporate the Sabines into the founding tribes of Rome. In Vedic mythology, the Aśvins (representing the third function as the Divine Twins) are initially blocked from access to the celestial power circle by Indra (the second function), but are eventually forced to be admitted. The Trojan War can also be interpreted as a reflection of this myth, where prosperous Troy symbolizes the third function and the conquering Greeks represent the first two functions.

Jaan Puhvel has noted similarities between two myths: the Norse myth where the god Týr places his hand in the mouth of the wolf Fenrir while the other gods bind him with Gleipnir, but Fenrir eventually bites off Týr's s hand when he realizes he cannot break the bindings, and the Iranian myth where Jamshid rescues his brother's corpse from the bowels of Ahriman by inserting his hand into Ahriman's anus and pulling the corpse out, after which his hand becomes infected with leprosy. In both stories, a figure of authority forces the malevolent entity into submission by placing his hand into the creature's opening (the mouth in the case of Fenrir, the anus in the case of Ahriman) and in doing so loses or contaminates his hand. Although Fenrir and Ahriman fulfill different roles in their own mythological traditions and are not considered remnants of a Proto-Indo-European "evil god," it is clear that the "binding myth" has an origin that dates back to the Proto-Indo-European era.