Introduction: The Bronze Age

The Bronze Age in Europe is known for the use of bronze tools and objects. This period follows the stone Age (the Neolithic) and the Copper Age, and is succeeded by the Iron Age. The European Bronze Age began around 3200 BC in the Aegean region and lasted throughout the second millennium BC. During this time, several significant cultures emerged, such as the Indo-European Únětice and Ottomány cultures, as well as the British and Nordic bronze Age, along with the Tumulus, Nuragic, Terramare, Urnfield, and Lausitz cultures. In Central Europe, the Bronze Age ended around 800 BC.

In European chronology, the Copper Age is often omitted. This period ran from 5,000 to 2,000 BC and partially overlapped with the bronze Age. The Copper Age is characterized by the Proto-Indo-European migrations from the Pontic steppes towards Europe. There you will also find information about the Corded Ware culture (PIE), Bell Beaker culture (PIE), and Yamnaya culture (PIE). Read more about this in our summary of the Copper Age. 

An archaeological culture is defined by basic of material remains. This is not the same as an ethnic culture, which also considers language, traditions, religion, history, and social structure. Sometimes an archaeological culture overlaps with an ethnic culture, but often it does not.

When studying the transition from one culture to another, it is important not to judge too quickly. In many cases, such transitions indicate changes in habits or lifestyle rather than the replacement of a population. This requires a nuanced and open approach. 

See this article for more information on Archaeological and ethnic cultures. 

To gain a better overview of where archaeological cultures come from, we mention the possible DNA composition for some cultures. For a culture that arose through much mixing, we present the entire composition. But if one group was dominant, we only name that dominant group.

Keep in mind that European cultures are always a mix of different groups and that they influenced each other mutually. No culture was completely isolated from others.

Around the 4th millennium BC, arsenic-bronze was already being produced in some regionss, such as the Balkans, an early form of bronze. However, around 4650 BC, tin bronze was first manufactured in Southeast Europe, for example in Pločnik (Serbia). Early tin bronze objects have also been found in Bulgaria and Serbia, indicating that tin bronze was independently developed in Europe. However, this early bronze production ceased after about 500 years, possibly due to the collapse of large cultural communities in present-day Bulgaria and Thrace. This collapse may have been related to climate changes and the conflicts that arose from them between the Neolithic farming communities. It was not until 1500 years later that tin bronze was used again, this time by the descendants of the Proto-Indo-European steppe herders.

In the Copper Age of Europe, there were approximately 36 copper mines. However, Tin was rare. Most of the tin used came from Central-North Afghanistan, Cornwall, and Galicia. To obtain tin, an extensive and complex trade network was necessary. This network led to much interaction between different regionss and caused cultural transfer. Isotope research shows that the tin used in the Minoan civilization (EEF) was traded to the Levant and ancient Egypt.

The Aegean Bronze Age began around 3200 BC, a time when long-distance trade emerged. Tin and charcoal were imported to Cyprus, where copper was mined and mixed with tin to make bronze. These bronze objects were then traded to Greece, the Levant, Turkey, Troy, Syria, and ancient Egypt. During this time, navigation reached a high level, which was only equaled again in the 18th century AD. Around this time, the Minoan civilization on Crete reached its peak. They produced expensive export products and transported goods to different regionss. Around 1600 BC, a volcanic eruption on Thera (present-day Santorini) caused severe damage to Crete and other Aegean areas, but the precise consequences remain unclear. The Minoan civilization recovered but was significantly weakened.

From 1500 BC, the Indo-European Mycenaeans spread their power over the Aegean region, Western Anatolia, and Troy. Around 1450 BC, they ruled the palace of Knossos and other islands, creating a hybrid Minoan-Mycenaean culture. This marked an era of uniformity in the region, the so-called 'Koine' period.

The Mycenaeans were masters in architecture, military construction, and trade. Their script, Linear B, contains the first written Greek texts. Their religion included gods who would later return in the Olympic pantheon. This society was highly hierarchical, with a king, the "wanax," at the head.

In Southeast Europe, early arsenic bronze artifacts have been found in Serbia and Bulgaria, dating from before 4000 BC. This production stopped at the end of the 5th millennium BC, but arsenic bronze was later reintroduced. The Majkop culture in the Caucasus was one of the earliest Bronze Age Cultures in this area.

In Eastern Europe, Proto-Indo-European cultures such as the Yamnaya (3600-2300 BC) were mainly nomadic. Later cultures introduced new pottery and the use of spoked chariots, as found in the Sintashta culture around 2000 BC.

The Proto-Indo-European Únětice culture (2300–1600 BC) in Central Europe was known for rich graves with golden gifts. Later cultures, such as the Tumulus culture, introduced burial mounds, and the Urnfield culture (1300–750 BC) was known for cremation graves.

In Northern Europe (Denmark, Sweden, Norway), artistic bronze objects were made, such as horns and sun discs. Around 2000 BC, an early Indo-European language was likely introduced, possibly a precursor to Germanic. From the Urnfield culture, the Hallstatt culture developed around 1200 BC, which later formed the first phase of the Celtic peoples.

In Great Britain the Bronze Age lasted from approximately 2100 to 700 BC. Migrants from the Bell Beaker culture introduced new customs, such as individual graves in barrows. The Wessex culture developed in southern England and was known for trade contacts and impressive metallurgy. Cornwall supplied tin for all of Western Europe, while copper was mined in Wales.

The transition from communal to individual burials reflected social changes traceable to the Proto-Indo-European peoples. In East Cambridgeshire, thousands of bronze artifacts were found, including more than 6500 pieces in Isleham.

In southern Spain, the Argar culture flourished, their DNA consisted of 60% EEF, ~25% WHG, ~15% PIE) (2200–1550 BC), an early state society with a hierarchical society. In Sardinia, the Nuragic culture (80% EEF, 20% WHG) built more than 7000 towers, along with temples and sacred wells. This civilization thrived into the early Iron Age.

The Atlantic Bronze Age (1300–700 BC) included coastal areas from Portugal to Ireland. Trade routes connected these regionss with each other and stimulated cultural exchange, such as the use of stone forts and round houses.

Due to the necessary tin to make bronze, an extensive trade network developed in the bronze Age throughout Europe and beyond. The Proto-Indo-European cultures of the Copper Age further evolved into bronze Age cultures with an extensive trade network. This was a period in which societies flourished, laying the foundation for later periods.