Introduction: The Celts

Celtic peoples were a collection of Indo-European peoples in Europe and Anatolia, identified by their use of Celtic languages and other cultural similarities. 

The origin of the Celts and their history is viewed in various ways. The traditional theory, "Celts from the East," posits that the proto-Celtic language originated in the Urnfield culture in Central Europe around 1200 BC, and further spread via the Hallstatt and La Tène cultures. Another theory, "Celts from the West," suggests that proto-Celtic developed in the Atlantic coastal zone. A third theory, "Celts from the Center," places the origin in Bronze Age Gaul, from where the culture spread. 

In archaeology, we speak of many different cultures. Sometimes these overlap with ethnic cultures but often they do not. At the same time, the transition of cultures should not be viewed black-white. In many cases, people simply experienced a change of customs. See this article for more information on Archaeological and ethnic cultures. 

Genetic studies show a clear connection between the Celts and earlier Indo-European cultures such as the Corded Ware culture, the later Bell Beaker culture and the Urnfield culture, with the haplogroup R-M269 (originating from Indo-European steppe peoples) frequently occurring. There is evidence of genetic interaction among the Celtic peoples of Europe.

The earliest Celtic languages are found in inscriptions from 600 BC, and the Celtic literary tradition begins with Irish texts from 800 AD. The Celts were often in conflict with the Romans and Greeks, thus their historical sources about Celts are always hostile. Historical evidence of the Celts comes from writers like Ephorus, Polybius, and Pausanias, who describe the Gauls and their conflicts with Rome.

The name 'Celts' was first used by the Greek geographer Hecataeus in 517 BC, and later by Romans such as Julius Caesar. The etymology of the name is unclear, but it is often associated with words meaning 'the people of the hidden'.

The Celtic languages belong to the Indo-European language family and branch into Celtiberian, Gaelic, and Brittonic. The oldest language traces are Lepontic inscriptions from Northern Italy, followed by Gaulish and Celtiberian inscriptions. The early Celtic languages were further spread via inscriptions and place names.

The Hallstatt culture was the most important archaeological culture in Western and Central Europe during the Late Bronze Age (Hallstatt A, Hallstatt B) from 1200 to 800 BC and the Early Iron Age (Hallstatt C, Hallstatt D) from 800 to 600 BC. It emerged from the Urnfield culture and was succeeded in many areas by the La Tène culture. 

In 600 BC, the culture expanded into large areas, divided into two zones, east and west. These covered a large part of Western and Central Europe, up to the Alps, and extended into Northern Italy. Parts of Great Britain and Iberia were also part of the eventual spread of the culture.

The culture was based on agriculture, but the processing of metal was highly developed. By the end of the period, trade within the area and with Mediterranean cultures played an important role. The Hallstatt culture showed strong influence from the Celtic languages. The Golasecca culture in Northern Italy, which emerged from the Canegrate culture, had strong similarities with the western Hallstatt culture, and the inscriptions in the Lepontic Celtic language support the idea that the early Hallstatt language was also Celtic. This also applies to the Umbrians, who developed a culture similar to the Hallstatt and La Tène cultures.

The trade during the Hallstatt period was facilitated by contacts with Greece, where luxury products such as Attic black-figure pottery, amber, ivory, and wine were imported. Important settlements of the Hallstatt culture, such as Heuneburg and Mont Lassois, were often fortified and located on hilltops. These so-called 'princely seats' were the centers of the culture and had richly decorated burial mounds and imposing structures. The Hallstatt population consisted of different social layers, with the elite becoming wealthy through trade in luxury goods.

In the Hallstatt period, burial rituals changed, with a shift from cremation to inhumation, where grave goods played an important role. The high-status graves often contained luxury items such as weapons, jewelry, and wagons, which were sometimes buried alongside the deceased. These burial rituals indicate a hierarchical society.

Technologically, the Hallstatt people were very advanced. They used iron for weapons and tools, and the production of iron swords and steel began around 800 BC. The production of pottery with a potter's wheel and the development of spoked wheels for wagons are also important innovations from this period. The Hallstatt culture also used standardized length measurements for construction and employed advanced techniques in carpentry and geometry.

Hallstatt art was characterized by geometric patterns, often found on metal objects and weapons. In the later phases of the culture, more human figures and narratives were depicted, often under the influence of Etruscan and Greek art. The import of luxury art influenced local styles, which is visible in objects such as the Strettweg cult wagon and the famous Hirschlanden warrior.

At the end of the Hallstatt period, around 500 BC, many of the larger settlements were abandoned, and people returned to smaller, more decentralized villages. The transition to the La Tène culture. The causes of these changes remain uncertain.

The La Tène culture developed and flourished during the late Iron Age, from around 450 BC to the Roman conquest in 100 BC. The La Tène culture succeeded the Hallstatt culture without a clear cultural breakpoint.

The territory of the La Tène culture covered the area that today includes France, Belgium, Switzerland, Austria, England, southern Germany, Czech Republic, northern Italy and central Italy, Slovenia, Hungary, and Liechtenstein. Additionally, it was present in adjacent parts of the Netherlands, Slovakia, Serbia, Croatia, Transylvania (western Romania) and Transcarpathia (western Ukraine). The Celtiberians in the west of Iberia shared many features of the culture, but not always the artistic style. To the north, the culture extended to the Pre-Roman Iron Age of Northern Europe, including the Jastorf culture in northern Germany and Denmark, and even to Galatia in Asia Minor (modern Turkey).

The La Tène culture was very diverse, with local differences. The culture is often distinguished from earlier and adjacent cultures by the typical La Tène style in Celtic art, characterized by curved, "spiraling" decorations, especially in metalwork.

There are significant trade contacts recognized in objects found in the graves of the elite. The style of La Tène materials can be recognized in Etruscan, Italic, Greek, Dacian, and Scythian influences. Greek pots and scientific techniques such as dendrochronology and thermoluminescence help to establish an absolute chronology for some La Tène sites.

The history of the La Tène culture was originally divided into early, middle, and late phases, based on basic of the typology of metal objects. The Roman occupation significantly disrupted the culture, although many elements persisted in the Gallo-Roman and Romano-British cultures.

The final phase of the Hallstatt culture (HaD, approximately 650–450 BC) was also widespread across Central Europe, and the transition to La Tène was gradual, primarily recognized by the La Tène style of elite objects first appearing at the western edge of the ancient Hallstatt area.

By 500 BC, the Etruscans expanded into the Celtic areas in Northern Italy, and trade across the Alps began to surpass trade with the Greeks. Regions such as the Rhine area, the Marne and Champagne, and Bohemia were thriving trade centers. Although there were influences from the Mediterranean, the La Tène style shows that these influences did not form the basic of the new art.

La Tène metalwork in bronze, iron, and gold, derived from the Hallstatt culture, is characterized by intricate inscriptions and inlaid spirals and braid motifs, especially on fine bronze objects, helmets, shields, horse harnesses, and jewelry, such as neck rings (torcs) and complex fibulae. It is characterized by elegant, stylized animal and plant forms, which are related to the geometric patterns from the Hallstatt traditions.

In the early La Tène period, settlements were dominated by the fortified hillforts of the chieftains. From the mid-La Tène period, larger settlements appeared, the so-called oppida. The houses were usually not made of stone, but built by carpenters. The people of La Tène also dug ritual shafts in which they deposited votive gifts and even human sacrifices.

The grave goods of the elite are often of great value, indicating an extensive trade network. In Vix, France, an elite woman from 600 BC was buried with a massive bronze "wine mixer" that was manufactured in Greece. Exports from La Tène areas to the Mediterranean cultures included salt, tin, copper, amber, wool, leather, fur, and gold. Artifacts typical of the La Tène culture were also found in regions s that were never part of the core area, such as Scandinavia, Northern Germany, Poland, and the Balkans.

The Celts inhabited a large part of Europe, with key regions s in Gaul (modern-day France), Iberia (Spain and Portugal), Germany, parts of the Balkans, the Czech Republic, parts of Poland, parts of Anatolia, Italy, and the British Isles.

In Gaul, known by the Romans as "Gauls," the Celtic culture spread from 400 BC and the region became a center of the La Tène culture. The Gauls minted their own coins and used Greek letters. Trade along the Rhône Valley began with Greek colonists around 600 BC, but was later disrupted. In 200 BC, Rome expanded its influence into Gaul and after the Gallic Wars of 58-51 BC, the area became an important Roman province, with Lugdunensis as its center.

In Iberia, the Celts had a significant influence, especially in the central, western, and northern parts. They were represented by the Celtiberians in the east, the Celtici in the southwest, and the Gallaeci in the northwest. The Celtiberians developed their own script and minted coins from 200 BC. In the northwest, the Castro culture was strongly maintained.

In Germany, the Alps, and Italy, the Celts settled from the Hallstatt culture to the La Tène culture. They founded cities such as Milan and conquered large parts of Northern Italy, known as Gallia Cisalpina. After their defeat in 225 BC by the Romans, they disappeared from the area.

In the east and south, the Celts expanded along the Danube and settled the Scordisci in the Belgrade region, while the Serdi in Thrace founded the city of Serdika. In other parts of Europe, such as Poland and Slovakia, the influence of the Celts was noticeable, often through trade and contact.

The Celts on the British Isles (Britain and Ireland) were divided into two branches: the Gaelic (Irish and Scottish) and the Brythonic (Welsh and Cornish). The Roman occupation of Great Britain led to a Romano-British culture, while the Irish remained outside the Roman Empire.

The Romans conquered Gaul and later Great Britain, bringing the indigenous peoples into contact with Roman customs. In Gaul, this led to a Romano-Gallic culture, with the Celts gradually adopting the use of Vulgar Latin. However, the Celts in Great Britain retained their language.

The Romans were also influenced by the Gauls, especially in the field of cavalry, where they used the Celtic sword (spatha), the chainmail shirt and galea helmets, which were developed from Celtic helmets. They also adopted local Celtic gods, of which the horse goddess Epona was the most widely worshiped.

The Celtic society in pre-Christian times was heavily derived from the Proto-Indo-European societal structure of reciprocity. The society was based on classes and kingship, with most tribes led by kings. The society was often divided into three groups: a warrior aristocracy, an intellectual class of druids, poets, and lawyers, and the rest of the population. In Ireland and Scotland, both high and low kings existed, with the high king fulfilling a ritual function. Little is known about the family structure, but the settlements varied from decentralized villages to urban forms, especially in Gaul and the Hallstatt and La Tène areas.

Slavery was present in Celtic society, with slaves acquired through wars, raids, or punishment. Slaves were often hereditary but could be freed. 

Celtic men were often described as tall, with blond hair and a muscular build. They treated their hair to make it stiff and thick, and some men shaved their beards while others let them grow.

Regarding gender roles, there are few reliable sources, but archaeological evidence suggests that women may have played a role in warfare. Some burials show women with both jewelry and weapons, which may indicate social status and martial activities. There are also indications that Celtic women, as described by Romans and Greeks, may have had active leadership in battles. However, it is suggested that many of the reports about female warriors are exaggerated or misunderstood.

There are also claims that the Celts in Southeastern Europe approved of male homosexuality, with rituals related to warrior groups and the absence of women. In Ireland, under Brehon law, women had the right to leave their husband and acquire property if he failed to fulfill his marital obligations.

Celtic societies had a long tradition of tribal warfare, usually aimed at raids and ambushes, this type of war was used for political control, disrupting rivals, economic advantages, and sometimes land conquest. Older writers describe the Celtic warriors as fierce and without military discipline, fighting like "wild animals" in hordes, with swords swung above their heads in blows intended to destroy their enemies.

The primary weapons of the Celts were long swords, which were more suited for hacking than for thrusting, as well as spears and javelins. It was also written that some Celts fought naked, indicating influence from the Proto-Indo-European koryos.

The Celts were known for their headhunting, where they would decapitate their enemies' skulls. The skull was considered the symbol of the soul and life. Greek writers such as Posidonius and Diodorus Siculus described how Celtic warriors hung the heads on their horses and displayed them in their homes, sometimes even embalming them in cedar oil. The Roman account by Livy tells that the Boii gilded the skull of a defeated general and used it as a ritual cup. Archaeological excavations, such as in Entremont and Roquepertuse, confirm these stories, with skulls preserved in stone pillars or niches. Severed heads also play an important role in Celtic myths, often associated with feasts and prophecies.

The Celtic religion was polytheistic and centered around various gods and goddesses, of which more than 200 are known. This religion varied by region but had many similarities in basic structure. Because the Celts had no writing, knowledge about their religion comes from archaeology, Greek and Roman accounts, and early Christian literature.

They likely had, like the Romans and Greeks, a sky father (*Dyēus) and a mother goddess (Dʰéǵʰōm) associated with the earth and fertility. There were also other important gods, such as the thunder god Taranis (*Perkʷūnos), Lugus (the god of craftsmanship), and Epona (the goddess of horses), comparable to Poseidon among the Greeks.

The Celtic religious rituals were led by druids, who were not only priests but also judges, teachers, and keepers of knowledge. There is evidence that the Celts sacrificed animals to their gods, and sometimes humans. The Romans indicated that the Celts often performed their rituals in sacred groves, called nemetons.

Most of the Celtic myths that have been preserved come from the islands, particularly from Ireland and Wales. These stories were mainly written down in the early Middle Ages by Christian monks. In these myths, gods and heroes often come into contact with the "Otherworld" – a parallel world where the gods reside. Many of these stories revolve around adventures in this other world, which was accessible through ancient burial mounds, caves, or water.

The famous heroes of these myths, such as Lugh and Mabon, show similarities to gods from other Celtic regionss. Some myths, such as those about head-hunting, are also found in the Arthurian legends.

When the Romans invaded Gaul, many Celtic tribes came under their rule. This had a significant impact on Celtic culture, especially on their religion. The druids lost their power, and mixed Roman-Celtic gods emerged. The Celts also began to build stone monuments for their gods, instead of the wooden statues they had previously used.