Introduction: the Scythians

The Scythians were an Indo-European nomadic people who inhabited vast areas of the Eurasian steppe between 900 BC and 400 AD. Their territory stretched from the Carpathians in the west to Mongolia in the east and was particularly characterized by a semi-nomadic equestrian culture that flourished during the 1st millennium BC.

In a broader sense, the term "Scythian" refers to a mosaic of peoples and cultures within the vast steppe, spread over various periods and known under different names. However, these groups shared a related "Scytho-Siberian culture," characterized by the rapid dissemination of cultural innovations over great distances. Despite regional differences, this culture showed remarkable similarities, which were the result of close contacts and shared traditions.

Historically known peoples such as the Sarmatians, Massagetae, and Saka are considered part of this broader Scythian group. Ancient sources such as the Greek historians often did not clearly distinguish between these groups. The area they inhabited was known in classical antiquity as 'Scythia'. A distinction was made between Scythia intra Imaum (west of the Imaus mountain range, the Pamir-Tienshan chain) and Scythia extra Imaum (east of it).

Within archaeology, we speak of many different cultures. Sometimes these overlap with ethnic cultures but often they do not. At the same time, the transition of cultures must be viewed in a nuanced manner. In many cases, people simply experienced a change of customs. 

The name "Scythians" was used by ancient writers for the Indo-Iranian peoples in the Pontic Steppes and is applied in modern archaeology to the Indo-Iranian inhabitants of this region from 700 - 300 BC. They were known for their equestrian culture and warfare. The name "Scythians" comes from the ancient word for archer (schiet/shoot) and was used by various civilizations for these nomads, later also for other nomadic groups from the Eurasian steppes.

The origin of the Scythians is long and complex. Proto-Indo-European steppe herders migrated between 3,000 and 3,500 BC towards Europe. They mixed with daughters of Neolithic farmers. Around 3,000 BC, they formed the Corded Ware culture, which had a distinctive cultural identity across a large part of Europe (from Ukraine, the Baltic states, and Russia to the Netherlands). A part of this culture (from the Baltic region and Hungary) remigrated back to the Pontic steppes and the Moscow region. They became the Abashevo culture and later around 2,900 BC the Sintashta culture, the possible developers of the chariot. They mixed with the Srubnaya culture and around 2,300 - 1,000 BC, the Andronovo culture developed from this. These Indo-Aryans moved towards Iran where they became the Indo-Iranians, and to the Levant, where they became the Mitanni, and to India, where they became the Vedic culture, from which Hinduism emerged. But most of them remained living on the steppes and became the Fedorovo culture. They moved eastward again and mixed with the Mongolian neighbors and became the Afanasievo culture. This in turn became the Proto-Scythian Karasuk culture around 1,500 - 800 BC. By this time, they had already mixed with various other Steppe peoples for thousands of years. Nevertheless, the Scythians exhibit a dominant Proto-Indo-European culture, religion, and social structure. Writers from classical antiquity and recent DNA research indicate that this people retained much of their Proto-Indo-European appearance. DNA research also shows that people from the Andronovo and Sintashta cultures are genetically closely related to the people from the Nordic Bronze Age.

In 1000 BC, the ancestors of the Scythians remigrated to the Pontic steppes. They formed tribal confederations that were part of the Chernogolovka-Novocherkassk culture. These early nomads shared each other's Proto-Indo-European roots and therefore had religious and cultural similarities with each other. A notable side effect of remigration and migration is that modern Baltic languages have more in common with modern Iranian than is the case with many other Proto-Indo-European languages.

The Scythians were part of a larger migration of Indo-Iranian nomads who entered Europe and Central Asia around 1,000 BC. This migration was largely driven by climate changes that made it increasingly difficult for sedentary farmers in Central Asia to survive. This forced these populations to adopt a nomadic lifestyle and move with their herds to better pastures in the west, such as the Caucasus and the Eurasian steppes.

In 900 BC, the Scythians, originally from Central Asia, were displaced by the Massagetae, another Iranian nomadic group. This displacement forced the Scythians to move westward. They crossed the Araxes River and settled around the Caspian Sea and the Ciscaucasian steppe. By 800 BC, the Scythians reached Europe and settled in the regions around the Pontic steppe, north of the Black Sea, in present-day Ukraine and southern Russia. Here they developed a powerful kingdom and came into contact with agrarian Maeotic tribes, leading to a mixed culture.

Upon their settlement in the Ciscaucasian steppe, the Scythians came into contact with the Cimmerians, who already inhabited the region. The Scythians displaced the Cimmerians, who were eventually assimilated. Around 750 BC, the Scythians settled in the Ciscaucasian steppe and expanded their influence into other areas of the region.

Between 700-600 BC, the Scythians expanded their influence into Western Asia, particularly in the regions of Cis- and Transcaucasia, where they developed a military and cultural identity, heavily influenced by Western Asian civilizations. The Scythians introduced advanced weapons, such as the S-shaped bows, which were more effective than the weapons present in the region. They also came into contact with the Assyrians, with whom they temporarily became allies.

Around 700 BC, the Scythians collaborated with the Assyrians to weaken the Neo-Assyrian Empire. The Scythians were involved in attacks on regionss such as Parsuwaš and Bīt-Ḫambān, which posed significant problems for Assyria. Around 672 BC, King Bartatua of the Scythians married the Assyrian princess Šērū’a-ēḫirat, making the Scythians allies of Assyria. This collaboration transformed the Scythians from enemies into allies, although they later distanced themselves from Assyria.

With the fall of the Neo-Assyrian Empire between 626 and 616 BC, the Scythians took advantage of the power vacuumm and conducted raids in the Levant. They reached the southern part of Palestine, as predicted by the prophets of Judah, such as Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Zephaniah. Although the Scythians did not reach Jerusalem, they conquered several cities in Palestine and demolished the temple of the goddess Aštart in Ashkelon. 

Between 550 and 539 BC, the Achaemenid Persian Empire was founded by Cyrus II, king of the Persians. The Persians, related to the Scythians, expanded their influence to the south, prompting the Scythians to settle further north. This expansion of the Persian Empire exerted additional pressure on the Scythians, who now found themselves compelled to defend their kingdom against this new, emerging power.

East of the Scythian kingdom, along the Tanais River, lived the Sauromatians, an Iranian tribe related to the Scythians. Between 600-400 BC, the Sauromatians had good relations with the Scythians. However, due to pressure from the Massagetae from Central Asia, the Sauromatians began to displace the Scythian kingdom. By the end of 600 BC, they had driven the Scythians out of the Kuban Valley, leaving the Scythian settlements there abandoned. The Sauromatians introduced new social norms, such as allowing women to become warriors, which led to the burial of female warriors in armed graves.

Around 513 BC, the Persian Empire under King Darius I began expanding into Europe. Darius marched with an army of 700,000 to 800,000 men to the Scythian kingdom. King Idanthyrsus called upon the surrounding peoples to resist the Persians. Together with the Budini, Geloni, and Sauromatians, he defended the Scythian realm. The Scythians employed a strategy of attrition: they continuously retreated, used scorched earth tactics, and avoided direct battles.

The outcome of the campaign is unclear. Darius claimed to have won, but according to Herodotus, the Scythians would have defeated the Persians. This enhanced the image of the Scythians as invincible. After the invasion, the Scythians sent a diplomatic mission to Sparta for a military alliance against the Persians, but the planned attack on the Persian Empire never took place.

Around 300 - 200 BC, the Scythians were defeated by the Sarmatians, another related nomadic group. By the early Middle Ages, the Scythians were fully assimilated by the peoples who settled in the Pontic Steppes, leading to the loss of their original culture and identity.

As early as 800 BC, the Greeks expeditions to the Black Sea, which led to trade and the establishment of trading posts. In 700 BC, the region became attractive for Greek settlements due to population growth and invasions by the Cimmerians. The region offered safe harbors, grain, and fish, which facilitated trade. Miletus led this colonization, founding about 90 colonies, and began contact with the Scythians in 625 BC. The first Greek trading posts exchanged Greek goods, such as oil and wine, for local products like grain, fish, and metals. The trade was peaceful and beneficial for both parties.

The Scythian aristocracy purchased luxury goods such as Greek wine and ceramics as status symbols. When Scythian influence in Western Asia declined, the demand for Greek pottery grew, strengthening the trade route along the northern coast of the Black Sea.

Around 600 BC, after most Scythians had settled in the Pontic Steppe, the second wave of Greek colonization began. Colonists from Miletus, Corinth, Phocaea, and Megara settled in fertile areas. The relations with the Scythians were peaceful and without defensive walls. Between 580 and 560 BC, nine new colonies were founded. Pantikapaion became the main city and supplied the Scythian aristocracy. Greeks exchanged wine, olive oil, and luxury goods for furs, fish, slaves, and grain. Olbia grew into a commercial center, especially in trade with Athens.

After the conquest of the Lydian Empire by Cyrus II in 547 BC, many Greek refugees came to the northern coast of the Black Sea. New colonies such as Nymphaion and Athenaion were founded. These colonies produced grain for export to Athens, which after 525 BC no longer received grain from Egypt. Greeks imported fish, furs, and slaves from Scythian territory and began employing Scythian mercenaries. Relations remained largely peaceful, although some colonies like Kremnoi and Pantikapaion were destroyed by the Scythians between 550 and 525 BC.

The art of the Scythians is characterized by a unique and recognizable style, often associated with their burial rituals. Kings and other prominent members of society were buried in kurgans, monumental burial mounds where richly decorated objects, horses, and jewelry were found. In addition to these objects, women, servants, and horses were often killed and interred as part of ritual practices meant to accompany the deceased into the afterlife.

Scythian art is known for the production of mosaics and decorative elements in a distinctive style, with animal motifs taking center stage. Horses, griffins, and other mythical creatures are often depicted, as well as plants. The designs are characterized by sharp lines that separate surfaces and evoke a sense of tension and dynamism.

Scythian art was not only functional but also served as a symbol of power, identity, and religious beliefs, making it an important part of their culture and heritage.

The Scythians were a people that were part of the broader cultures of the nomadic Iranian peoples who roamed the Eurasian steppe. They had much in common with other peoples from that region, such as similar weapons, horse harnesses, and the so-called "Animal Style" in art.

The Scythians came from the Eurasian steppe, an area that compelled them to live as herders. This meant they had to be constantly on the move to find sufficient grasslands, which in turn influenced almost every aspect of their lives, from the setup of their dwellings and the style of their clothing to their cooking methods.

This nomadic culture relied on a self-sufficient economy that catered to its own needs. The most important component of this was the horse, which was used for peaceful trade as well as warfare. The horse gave the nomadic warriors a strategic advantage until firearms were invented.

Because the Scythians had no written language, we can only reconstruct their non-material culture from texts by non-Scythian authors, similarities with other Iranian peoples, and archaeological findings.

Little is known about the Scythian language, also called Scytho-Sarmatian. Our knowledge is based on only a handful of sources, including very short inscriptions, personal names, and place names.

Most scholars assume that modern Ossetian, through the language of the Alans, at least partially traces back to a Scythian dialect. This suggests that the Scythian language was part of the Eastern Iranian branch of the Indo-European language family. However, it is possible that within the Scythian culture, other languages were also spoken, given the diversity of the peoples belonging to this culture.

Within the Scythian language tradition, three phases are generally distinguished:

• 1. Scythian (ca. 800–300 BC): This period is primarily known from references in classical Greek sources.
• 2. Sarmatian (ca. 300 BC–400 AD): This phase is mainly documented in Hellenistic and Roman inscriptions.
• 3. Alanic (ca. 400–1000 AD): This language, spoken by the Alans, is especially known from Byzantine Greek sources.

The Cimmerians, who were struggling with internal divisions over how to deal with the impending invasion of the Scythians, became embroiled in an internal conflict. During this confrontation, the 'Royal tribe' of the Cimmerians was completely annihilated. Their dead were buried in their land, by the river Tyras (now the Dniester).

The group of Cimmerians who had chosen to leave their land, which was the cause of the conflict with the Royal tribe, fled the area before the Scythians arrived. These migrating Cimmerians entered Asia and established a settlement there. On the site of this settlement, the Greek city of Sinope would later arise.

• Aristeas describes a chain of migrations and invasions:
• The Arimaspi conquered the land of the Issedones.
• The Issedones consequently entered the territory of the Scythians.
• Subsequently, the Scythians invaded the land of the Cimmerians, initiating a new wave of migration.

Because the Scythians, unlike many other Indo-European cultures, maintained their lifestyle as steppe herders, they provide us with a unique insight into how this social structure functioned on the steppes.

The Scythian society was based on agreements and reciprocity . A shepherd could lose his livestock and then borrow livestock from another shepherd, whereby both parties entered into a client-lord relationship. The client could be called upon in case of war, and the lord had the obligation to protect the client. Thus, both individuals had the obligation to grant hospitality to each other and each other's descendants.

Scythian society was thus divided into classes, with social inequality increasing as time progressed. Herodotus mentioned the three classes of the Scythians only once in his writings. An explanation was given for the different classes that provides insight into the Scythian variant of the Proto-Indo-European creation ritual.

• The Catiari (Greek: Κατιαροι) and the Traspies (Greek: Τρασπιες), who formed the peasant and worker class, descended from the middle son of Targitaos, Arpoxais, and occupied the lowest social position;
• The Auchatae, who were the priests and descended from the eldest son of Targitaos, Lipoxais, were in the middle class;
• The Royal Scythians, also known as the Scoloti and the Paralatae, who were the warrior aristocracy, descended from the youngest son of Targitaos, Kolaxais, and occupied the highest social position. This class dominated the other two, with the Scythian kings belonging to this ruling class.

The Scythian society was built upon kinship structures, with clan groups forming the basic of the community and the political organization.

Within the Scythian religion, there existed a genealogical myth used by the Scythian kings as justification for their divine right to rule.

Clan elders, or possibly the Scythian variant of bards, held significant power and could even depose kings. An example of this is when the Scythian army deposed King Scyles and demanded his extradition to the Thracians, after which he was executed. After the deposition of Scyles, the power of both the king and the warrior aristocracy was further consolidated.

As an extension of the clan-based relationships, there was also a tradition of blood brotherhood among the Scythians. In this ceremony, the blood of the sworn blood brothers was mixed in a cup of wine, after which their swords, arrows, battle axes, and spears were dipped into the cup before they drank the mixture together.

The Scythian society was patriarchal, where women were subordinate to men. However, women from the higher classes had the freedom to ride horses, while women from the lower classes might not have had the same freedom and often stayed indoors. Among the more nomadic tribes, women and children spent most of their time in the wagons that traveled with the nomadic tribes. Herodotus of Halicarnassus noted that women among the Sauromatians had a higher status than among the Scythians. With the immigration of a wave of Sauromatians in the late 6th century BC, among whom women had a high social status, the position of women in Scythian society improved to the extent that from the Middle Scythian period, they were also allowed to serve as warriors.

Polygamy was common among the higher classes of the Scythians, and kings had harems with both local women and women who were bought. Some of these women were the legal wives of the kings, while others were their concubines. After the death of a Scythian man, his primary wives or concubines were often killed and buried alongside him. This tradition has similarities among the Vikings, the Vedians, and later Indians.

The tombs of the kings were in the land of the Gerrhi, where the Borysthenes is first navigable. A large, square grave was dug for the deceased king. Then the king's abdomen was opened, cleaned from the inside, filled with herbs, sewn up, and the body was coated with wax and placed on a wagon and driven around all Scythian tribes. The wagon returned to the land of the Gerrhi, the most remote of all districts. The body was laid on a mattress in the excavated grave. On each side, a spear was planted in the ground with slats above and twigs as a roof. Around the king, his concubines were buried after being strangled, along with his cupbearer, cook, groom, servant, and messenger, some horses, the firstlings of his other possessions, and some golden cups.

Then, as high a burial mound as possible was erected above. After a year, 50 of his best young servants, along with 50 horses, were strangled. Their abdomen was opened, cleaned, filled, and sewn up. Poles were driven into the ground in pairs, and above each pair of poles, the rim of a half wheel. Each horse was impaled from tail to neck and placed above the half wheels, so that the legs of the horses hung in the air. The horses were given a bit, and the reins were fastened to a stake in front of the horse. The slain servants were impaled in the same way, and this pole was so passed through the pole through the horses that they became riders. The 50 riders were thus arranged around the burial mound and left.

The religion of the Scythians was developed from Indo-European paganism and had many similarities with Old Norse, Greek, and Vedic religion. Possibly as a pacifist response to the culture of cattle raiding, Zoroastrianism developed among the Indo-Iranians around 1200 BC (from which Judaism, Islam, and Christianity later evolved). While the Indo-European religions are dharma-oriented and focused on the cosmic order, Zoroastrianism emphasizes the distinction between good and evil.

The Scythians did not adopt Zoroastrianism; the movement may have arisen as a counter-movement against the Scythians. However, their culture was later influenced by Zoroastrianism.

The use of cannabis to induce trance and shamanism was a feature of the Scythian belief system. As well as a rich mythology and hierarchy among the gods. 

The Scythians had an appearance that closely resembled the European population. Persian sculptures and Scythian gold artifacts depict them as sturdily and powerfully built, with pronounced facial features and thick, wavy hair.

The elite among the Scythians were notably tall. The men were often taller than 1.80 meters, sometimes more than 1.90 meters, and in exceptional cases even over 2 meters. This height difference, usually 10 to 15 centimeters compared to ordinary Scythian citizens, was seen as a status symbol. Analysis of skeletons shows that the Scythians had longer arms and legs and stronger bones than the people who later lived in their regions.

The Greek historian Herodotus described the Budini of Scythia in the 5th century BC as red-haired and with gray eyes. In the same period, Hippocrates stated that the Scythians had fair skin, while the poet Callimachus in the 3rd century BC spoke of blond Arimaspi (a Scythian tribe). The Chinese envoy Zhang Qian described the Sai (related to the Scythians) in the 2nd century BC as people with blue or yellowish eyes, possibly hazel.

Later, in the 2nd century AD, Clement of Alexandria wrote that the Scythians and Celts had long chestnut brown hair. Philosopher Polemon called them northern people with red hair and blue-gray eyes. Physician Galen confirmed this and called them, along with other northern peoples, red-haired. Gregory of Nyssa, a bishop from the 4th century, described the Scythians as people with fair skin and blond hair. Physician Adamantius reiterated in the 5th century that they had blond hair.

The high king had the highest authority over the armies of the Royal Scythians and their subordinate tribes; the local gentlemen were responsible for the army of a district (nome); the clan chiefs were responsible for the warrior groups.

The districts of the Scythian kingdom were responsible for disseminating information about the war during the Persian invasion of Scythian territory.

The Scythians fought in mass formations of mounted archers and were skilled in the use of feigned retreat tactics.

Some Scythian warriors wore luxurious protective armor, such as scale armor. Ordinary warriors were typically unarmored and relied on their maneuverability.

The scale armor was adopted by the Scythians from the peoples of Western Asia in the 7th century BC and became an important aspect of Scythian culture in the northern Pontic region's. Scale armor was also used to protect horses.

The Scythian aristocracy used bronze helmets of the Kuban type. Later, Greek helmets, such as the Attic, Corinthian, Chalcidian, and Thracian helmets, were used, which replaced the Caucasian-made Kuban type helmets in the 6th century BC. Composite scale helmets, made of iron or bronze plates, began to be used in the later 6th century BC.

Greek greaves were imported from the 5th century BC.

The Scythians used locally made small shields of hide, reed, or wood, reinforced with iron strips. The shields of Scythian aristocrats were often adorned with decorative central plates.

Mounted archery was the fighting style of the free common Scythians, who were called hippotoxotai (Greek: ιπποτοξοται, literally 'horse archers') in Greek.

Within the Pontic Steppe, the invading Scythian conquerors established themselves as the ruling elite over the local population and assimilated them while allowing them to continue their various lifestyles and economic organizations.

The peoples of Scythia were thus agro-pastoralists, consisting of a mixture of sedentary farming populations and nomads, with the tribes living in the steppes remaining predominantly nomadic and having lifestyles and customs inextricably linked to their nomadic way of life.

The dominant tribe, the Royal Scythians, originally led a transhumant warrior-pastoral nomadic lifestyle, spending summers in the northern steppes and moving south towards the coasts in winter.

Migration and New Technologies: The Scythians introduced new technologies such as ironworking and scale armor to the Pontic Steppe. These innovations strengthened their military power and dominated the region.

Economic Growth: In the 5th century BC, Scythian influence expanded. The grain trade became an important source of wealth, with Greek colonies as trading partners. The Bosporan Kingdom became a significant grain supplier for Greece.

Slave Trade: In the 5th century BC, the Scythians began selling slaves to Greek cities. They captured slaves from subjugated tribes and sold them in Pontic Olbia.

Other Export Products: Besides slaves, the Scythians traded livestock and animal products. The Greeks supplied luxury goods, including wine, fabrics, jewelry, and bronze objects.

Greek Influence and Artistic Development: Scythian art began to incorporate Greek motifs, especially in the weapons and horse equipment. The Scythians adopted Greek culture, leading to a blend of both styles in their art.

Early Sedentarization: From the beginning of the 6th century BC, intensive trade with the Greeks led to more sedentary forms of economy. This was reinforced by climate changes that increased grass for livestock.

Cities and Administrative Changes: In the late 5th century BC, Kamianka and Yelizavetovskaya were important Scythian cities, serving as centers of trade, culture, and administration.

Struggle for Succession: In 440 BC, King Scyles was overthrown by his half-brother Octamasadas, who took power. The power of the Scythians over the Greek colonies increased, especially under Scyles, who demanded tribute from cities like Nikonion and Olbia.

External Relations: The Scythians influenced other peoples such as the Thracians and Bosporans. They extended their influence to the Bosporan Kingdom, which benefited from their support. The city of Olbia lost ground in favor of the Bosporus, which now became the center of luxury trade.

Rise of the Sarmatians: Between 430 and 400 BC, the Sarmatians migrated to Scythia, temporarily affecting the power of the Scythians. However, the Scythians quickly recovered and experienced a golden age in the 4th century BC.

The Scythian Golden Age: During the 4th century BC, Scythian culture flourished, strengthened by wealth from the grain trade and influence from Greece. The Scythian aristocracy embraced Greek customs, and the culture became increasingly Hellenistic.

King Ateas: The most famous Scythian king, Ateas (360-339 BC), expanded his realm into Thrace and the Greek cities on the Black Sea. His conflict with Philip II of Macedonia ended with his death in 339 BC.

Decline of Scythian influence: After the death of Ateas, the influence of the Scythians began to decline due to the rise of Macedonia, but the Scythian kingdom continued to exist, albeit in a weakened state.

At the end of the 4th century BC, the Scythian kingdom in the Pontic region began to collapse after several military defeats. The battles against King Philip II of Macedonia weakened the Scythians, but when Alexander the Great began his campaign in the region, he decided not to attack the Scythians. Nevertheless, he crossed the Istros River in 335 BC, which negatively affected trade, especially in Pontic Olbia.

Between 339 and 329 BC, an unknown Scythian king waged war against King Pairisadēs I of the Bosporan kingdom. In 331 BC, Alexander's general Zopyrion led a failed campaign against the Getae and the Scythians, marking the beginning of the decline of Olbia. In 329 BC, the Scythians attempted to form an alliance with Alexander again, but their king died and was succeeded by his brother Agaros. Agaros was defeated in 313 BC by Lysimachus, the Macedonian king of Thrace.

In the early 3rd century BC, the Scythian kingdom fell into economic decline due to overgrazing, climate changes, and the rise of the Sarmatians, who attacked the Scythians. The Sarmatians, who were more active and dynamic, conquered the steppes and displaced the Scythians. The Scythian capital Kamianka was abandoned, and the Scythian culture disappeared, with the cessation of the construction of large burial mounds and the abandonment of cities like Gelonus.

With the fall of the Scythian kingdom, the Scythians lost their influence in the Pontic Steppe. Greek inscriptions ceased to mention Scythian slaves, who were replaced by Sarmatians and other peoples from the region. The area was named "Sarmatia Europa," and the Sarmatians became the dominant power.

By 280 BC, the Sarmatians reached the city of Chersonesus on the Tauric Peninsula, and between 270 and 260 BC, many Greek settlements on the Black Sea were destroyed. The Scythians on the Tauric Peninsula had by then become vassals of a Sarmatian tribe. At the same time, Celtic, Thracian, and Germanic tribes exerted pressure on the Scythians by taking over their territories.

By the beginning of the 2nd century BC, the Sarmatians had become so powerful that they could halt the advance of other peoples such as the Celts.

The dominance of the Scythian-Sarmatian nomads on the Pontic Steppe ended around 200 AD, when the Goths and other Germanic tribes invaded the area. This led to the destruction of Scythian settlements in Crimea and along the lower reaches of the Borysthenes (the Dnieper).

Nevertheless, the Scythians persisted until after the Huns' invasion in the 4th century AD. Eventually, they ceased to exist as an independent group. They were fully assimilated into the other populations that migrated to the Pontic Steppe during the 5th century AD. The related Sarmatians also persisted until the Huns' invasion, and a splinter group of them became the people of the Alans during the Migration Period.