Introduction: The Jastorf Culture

The Germanic peoples were tribal groups that lived in Northern Europe during Classical Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages. In modern scholarship, this term refers to both the inhabitants of Germania and all Germanic-speaking peoples of that time. This blog is limited to the Germanic peoples who lived in the area of 'Greater Germania' until approximately the 1st century AD.

The Germanic Iron Age is divided into three periods: the Pre-Roman Iron Age (500 - 100 BC). The Roman Iron Age (0 - 375 AD) and the Germanic Iron Age (375 - 800 AD)

This blog focuses on the Pre-Roman and Roman Iron Age. See our other blog about the Germanic Iron Age and Migration Period.

In archaeology, we speak of many different cultures. Sometimes these overlap with ethnic cultures but often they do not. At the same time, the transition of cultures must be viewed in a nuanced manner. In many cases, people simply experienced a change of habits. See this article for more information about Archaeological and ethnic cultures. 

The Germanic languages belong to the Indo-European language family. According to scientists, these languages emerged through the spread of Indo-European languages during the Copper Age, from the Pontic-Caspian steppe around 3500 BC. This occurred via mixed cultures such as the Corded Ware culture, which moved towards the area of present-day Denmark, where it merged with the Funnelbeaker culture. This cultural blending eventually led to the Nordic Bronze Age (2000–500 BC), considered the period in which the precursor of the Germanic languages arose. 

Around 500 BC, we can first speak of "Germanic peoples," based on archaeological and linguistic evidence. Their origin is characterized by the Jastorf Culture, an archaeological culture in present-day Germany and Poland. However, some scientists suggest that Germanic peoples also originated elsewhere, for example in Jutland and Southern Scandinavia, indicating multiple origins.

Iron was used in the Mediterranean region as early as 1300 BC, but in Northern Europe, it only became widespread from 500 BC. Due to the collapse of trade at the end of the Bronze Age, bronze became scarce. As a substitute, people began extracting iron from peat bogs. This arose from contact with the Celtic Hallstatt Culture from Central Europe, where knowledge and technology were shared over a large area. The Hallstatt Culture emerged from the Urnfield culture of the Late Bronze Age (1200 BC). The third phase of the Hallstatt Culture marked the beginning of the Early Iron Age in Central Europe (800-600 BC). This was later followed by the Celtic La Tène Culture (450 BC–100 BC). The northern Iron Age cultures were likely carried by Germanic speakers.

Funerary rituals, such as cremation and urn burial, continued traditions of the Bronze Age. Influences from the Central European La Tène culture reached Scandinavia, resulting in finds such as swords, spear heads, jewelry, and cauldrons, including the famous Gundestrup cauldron and Dejbjerg wagons.

The Jastorf Culture was an Iron Age culture located in what is now Germany, extending to Jutland in the north and Poland in the east. This culture existed between 600 - 100 BC and formed the southern part of the Pre-Roman Iron Age. There is debate whether this expansion was a warlike migration or a peaceful cultural diffusion. In the Netherlands, it is assumed that innovations from the Iron Age stem from local developments and mutual influence. Also in this period, traders bridged long distances and the various Central and Northern European cultures of the late Bronze Age and early Iron Age share many cultural and religious similarities. 

The culture is named after an archaeological site near the village of Jastorf in Lower Saxony. It was characterized by the use of cremation burials in large urn fields and was strongly influenced by the Northern Bronze Age. The material culture shows a mixture of traditions, in which the Northern Bronze Age continued to leave a clear mark, even as influences came from the Celtic Hallstatt Culture in the south.

In the south, the Jastorf Culture bordered the Hallstatt Culture, while in the north similarities were visible with the later phases of the Northern Bronze Age. Burial fields in areas such as Schleswig-Holstein, Mecklenburg, Western Pomerania, Brandenburg, and Lower Saxony show a continuity of habitation from the Bronze Age deep into the Jastorf Period and beyond. Although archaeologists see that Celtic and local traditions influence each other, it is not yet fully clear how these interactions exactly took place.

Initially, the Jastorf Culture was limited to Northern Lower Saxony and Schleswig-Holstein. However, around 500 BC, it began to expand south and west, reaching as far as the Harz, Thuringia, Lower Silesia, and the Rhineland. This expansion was made possible by the previous departure or depopulation of these areas, as groups from the Hallstatt Culture, often identified as Celtic or Belgian, moved to other parts of Europe, including the Mediterranean and Atlantic Europe. This migration was likely driven by climate change. Northern Europe became colder and wetter, causing crop failures. 

During its heyday, the core area of the Jastorf Culture was concentrated in Northern Lower Saxony (the Lüneburger Heide and the lower Elbe). This area contrasted with the so-called Nienburg group (or Harpstedt-Nienburg group) in the west, along the Aller and the middle reaches of the Weser. The Nienburg group showed more similarities with Celtic cultures and had clear contacts with the Hallstatt and La Tène cultures. Scattered finds of the Jastorf Culture have also been found in areas such as Berlin and Mecklenburg-Vorpommern.

The Jastorf Culture reflects a unique period in which influences from the Nordic and Celtic worlds converged. It marks a transitional period in which local communities in Northern Europe developed their own identity while maintaining contacts with more southern cultures. This makes the Jastorf Culture an important subject for archaeological research into early Germanic history.

Most finds of the Jastorf Culture come from burial mounds, flat graves, and so-called Brand Gruben Gräber (cremation pits). Notably, grave goods are scarce and modest, and the weapon offerings, characteristic of graves from the Migration Period, are completely absent.

The southernmost spread of Germanic cultures outside the Jastorf area becomes visible only at the end of the Pre-Roman Iron Age. This is evidenced, among other things, by the small number of Late-La Tène bracelets found in Thuringia and northeastern Hesse. These finds possibly indicate population movements from the Elbe/Saale region, via Main-Franconia, to the edges of the Alps. These migrations seem to have been influenced by the rise of the Przeworsk Culture.

Another factor that may have promoted the expansion of the Jastorf Culture is the demographic vacuum that arose in southern Germany, around the upper Danube and Rhine. From 400 BC, Celtic groups, who previously lived in this region, moved away to richer areas in Gaul, Spain, Pannonia, and Northern Italy. This exodus created space for new communities, including those of the Jastorf Culture, to settle in the south.

In the late phase, turbulent times arose, such as the invasions of the Teutons and Cimbri, culminating in their defeat at Aquae Sextiae (102 BC). Fortified settlements from this period include Borremose (Denmark) and Atuatuca (Belgium).

The first Germanic peoples mentioned in historical sources are the Bastarnae and the Cimbri. Around 100 BC, the Cimbri and Teutons caused great unrest in Europe through their migrations, which eventually led to the Cimbrian Wars against the Romans. Although these Germanic groups were initially successful, they were ultimately defeated.

By the end of 100 BC, the Germanic peoples expanded their territory, often at the expense of the Celtic tribes. Julius Caesar waged war against the Germanic leader Ariovistus and conquered Gaul, establishing the Rhine as the border for the Roman Empire. Later, the Romans also attempted to conquer territories east of the Rhine, but these efforts met with fierce resistance.

In the year 9 AD, the famous Battle of the Teutoburg Forest took place, in which the Germanic leader Arminius trapped and destroyed a large Roman army. This defeat forced Rome to retreat and confine itself to the Rhine as the eastern border. Rome then attempted to keep the Germanic tribes divided, but rebellions continued to occur regularly, such as the Batavian rebellion in 69 AD.

After the Batavian rebellion, some peace returned to the Roman border. The Romans built fortifications, such as the limes, to protect their borders. Nevertheless, contact with the Germanic peoples often remained tense, with periods of conflict and cooperation.

The name of the Roman Iron Age comes from the grip that the Roman Empire began to exert on the Germanic tribes of Northern Europe. This era was characterized by intensive trade and cultural exchange, which left clear traces in Scandinavia.

During this period, many Roman goods were brought to Scandinavia, such as coins, barrels, bronze statues, glass cups, enameled buckles and weapons. Metal objects and pottery also adopted a Roman style. Objects such as scissors and pawns appeared for the first time during this era. Many Germanic tribes provided warriors as mercenaries to the Roman Empire during this period. They returned with new ideas and applied them within the Germanic context. As a result, from 300-400 AD, the Germanic peoples began to increasingly copy Roman concepts, such as building large temples (of wood). Around this time, the runic script was introduced. 

From this period, many bog bodies have been found in Denmark, Schleswig, and southern Sweden. In addition to the bodies, weapons, household items, and woolen clothing were also discovered. The main burial tradition was cremation, but from 300 AD onwards, burial of bodies became increasingly common.

A remarkable find from this period are the large rowing ships from 400 AD, which were excavated in Nydam Mose in southern Denmark. These ships testify to the advanced shipbuilding and maritime culture of that time.

In 300 AD, the Gudme Hall complex was built in Denmark. This was an important center for the elite, where both power and religion played a role. Around the same time, Uppåkra in Sweden grew into the largest Iron Age settlement in Scandinavia. Additionally, a wooden temple was built that remained in use for more than 600 years, until the early Viking Age. Gamla Uppsala, also in Sweden, developed around the same time into an important religious, economic, and political center.

In 500 - 600 AD, gold and silver were increasingly found in Scandinavia. This was the result of the plundering of the Roman Empire by Germanic tribes. Many Scandinavians returned with loot in the form of gold and silver, leading to a new period in Northern Europe: the Germanic Iron Age.