Introduction: The Migration Period

The Migration Period (ca. 300 to 800 AD), was a period originally characterized by large-scale migrations. This period saw the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the subsequent settlement of various tribes in the former Roman territories, as well as the establishment of post-Roman kingdoms. In this blog, we provide a brief introduction to this complex period and identify the pitfalls. 

The term migration period refers to the significant role that migration, invasion, and settlement of various peoples played. Germanic peoples such as the Burgundians, Vandals, Goths , Alemanni, nomadic peoples such as the Alans, Huns, Pannonian Avars, Bulgars, and Magyars, and the early Slavs played a central role in this.

The migration period is believed to have begun in AD 375 (possibly as early as AD 300) and ended in AD 568 or 800. Various factors contributed to this migration and invasion, and its role and significance are still widely discussed. The beginning of the period is generally considered to be the invasion of Europe by the Huns from Asia around AD 375, and it extends to AD 800. In the 4th century, for instance, a very large group of Goths was settled as foederati in the Roman Balkans, and the Franks were placed south of the Rhine in Roman Gaul. In 406, the Rhine was crossed by a particularly large and unexpected group of Vandals, Alans, and Suebi. As the central power in the Western Roman Empire crumbled, the military became increasingly important, but it was dominated by people who shared the ethnicity of these invading peoples. 

The Migration Period, an era of great migrations, can roughly be divided into two major waves. The first wave was caused by the Huns, who entered the Pontic steppes from Asia. Their rise triggered a domino effect of migrations among other peoples. The second wave resulted from the power vacuum left by the Huns, leading to the movement of Slavic peoples and steppe tribes. Many Germanic peoples formed confederations and were directly or indirectly involved in major migrations. However, migration was only one aspect of this period. A fuller picture shows that it was a complex interplay of migration, cultural changes, and the decline of Roman central authority.

When we think of migration, we often imagine entire peoples rolling across the map like unstoppable bowling balls, destroying everything in their path. The reality was more nuanced. Although large groups sometimes migrated, this often happened in smaller parts. Along the way, these migrants came into contact with local populations. This contact was sometimes violent, but also peaceful, for example through trade and the exchange of knowledge and culture. Many of the peoples who emerged during the Migration Period were not strangers to the Roman Empire. For hundreds of years, these peoples participated in Roman life, for example as mercenaries in the army or as allies and trade partners. Despite cultural differences, they often shared a common Indo-European origin, which led to religious and cultural similarities between the cultures. The armies of the Migration Period were diverse on both Roman and "barbarian" sides. Soldiers represented a wide range of cultural backgrounds, making these migrations not simple movements of separate peoples, but complex interactions of cultures and traditions. 

The Germanic tribes originated in Southern Scandinavia and Northern Germany and began to spread from 1000 BC, likely due to overpopulation. The first wave moved west and south, displacing the Celtic population around 200 BC to the west as far as the Rhine. Around 100 BC, these tribes reached Southern Germany and the borders of the Roman provinces of Gaul and Cisalpine Gaul. Here they were stopped by Gaius Marius and later Julius Caesar. This boundary would be incorporated into the Limes (Roman-Barbarian border) during the Roman Empire. 

A later wave of migration between 600 and 300 BC brought Germanic tribes east and south from Scandinavia, towards the coast of the Baltic Sea and along the Vistula to the Carpathians. In this period, Tacitus mentioned tribes such as the Tencteri, Cherusci, Hermunduri, and Chatti. Indirectly, this marked the beginning of Germanic mixing in the steppe region.

Through interconnections, later well-known Germanic confederations such as the Alemanni, Franks, Saxons, Frisians, and Thuringians.

The first major migration occurred between 300 and 500 AD, bringing Germanic tribes, along with other groups, to control large parts of the Western Roman Empire.

The Huns played a crucial role in initiating these migrations. Their rise in the 4th century AD triggered a chain reaction of population movements. From the Eurasian steppe, the Huns invaded Western Europe, driving the Goths, Sarmatians, and Alans ahead of them. This caused massive shifts and conflicts in and around the Roman Empire.

The Tervingi, a Gothic tribe, fled across the Danube into Roman territory in 376 AD to escape the Huns. This migration led to tensions with the Romans, culminating in the Battle of Adrianople in 378 AD, where the Romans suffered a severe defeat. The Tervingi later evolved into the Visigoths, who sacked Rome in 410 AD and eventually settled in Gaul and Spain. Here they founded the Visigothic Kingdom around 460 AD.

The Alans migrated westward, often in coalition with Germanic tribes such as the Vandals and Suebi. Together they crossed the Rhine in 406 AD and later settled in Hispania and North Africa, where they became part of the Vandal kingdom.

Some Sarmatians joined the Huns as allies, while others dispersed and integrated into Germanic and Roman communities.

In 476 AD, Odoacer, a leader of a coalition of Germanic Heruli, Rugians, and Scirians, deposed the last Roman emperor, Romulus Augustulus. This marked the end of the Western Roman Empire.

The Franks gradually migrated to Roman Gaul and under Clovis established a powerful kingdom in Northern Gaul in 486 AD. This kingdom would later develop into the core area of France and Germany.

Under the leadership of Theodoric the Great, the Ostrogoths settled in Italy and established a kingdom there.

The Anglo-Saxons settled in Great Britain after the end of Roman control, while the Burgundians settled in Northwestern Italy, Switzerland, and Eastern France.

During this period, Slavic tribes further expanded into Central, Eastern, and Southeastern Europe.

Slavic Tribes made the east of Europe largely Slavic-speaking.

The Avars and later the Magyars destroyed the kingdom of the Gepids around 567 AD. The Lombards, a Germanic tribe, settled with allies in Italy.

The Bulgars, originally a nomadic people from Central Asia, migrated to the Balkans and made the region largely Slavic-speaking by the 7th century.

The Arab armies attempted to invade Europe in the 7th and 8th centuries but were stopped by the Byzantines and Bulgarians. Simultaneously, the Moors conquered Visigothic Spain via Gibraltar but were defeated by the Franks at the Battle of Poitiers in 732 AD.

The Hungarians settled around 895 AD in the Carpathians and began raids into Europe.

The Vikings started their expansion in the late 8th century, marking the last major migration wave of this period.

Why the Roman Empire collapsed remains a topic of debate. It was likely caused by a combination of factors. Some examples include: large-scale migration, powerful enemies at the borders, the introduction of monotheistic Christianity as the state religion, increase of non-Roman troops in the Roman army. The ever-growing government body while central authority crumbled and polarized.

A possible indirect cause of the fall of the Roman Empire can be seen in a fundamental renewal in spirituality and lifestyle. The Roman polytheistic religion shared its origins with the religions of the Celts, Germans, and many Steppe peoples. Whether different or not, their life views centered on the perspective of cosmic order: these peoples were culturally dharmic, with the aristocracy tasked to create order and structure. In 381 AD, monotheistic Christianity was recognized as the Roman state religion. A few years later, conflicts broke out within Christianity that led to schisms. Many inhabitants of the Roman Empire were possibly not yet converted then. They were expected to renounce the old gods, along with their 4,000-year-old religion such as cosmic order, class system, oath-bound relationships, and ancestor worship . This likely led to polarization and ambiguities. The concept of Good and Evil, with the holy scriptures as a guideline, caused two groups with a completely different worldview. Where the Romans previously adopted foreign gods, everyone now had to think within a monotheistic framework. The effects this had on all levels of central authority must have been significant.

The Eastern Roman Empire adapted and continued to exist until the fall of Constantinople to the Ottomans in 1453. The fall of the Western Roman Empire, although it led to the establishment of competing Germanic kingdoms, was to some extent managed by the Eastern Roman emperors.

The term "Völkerwanderung" originates from German historiography and refers to the early migrations of the Germanic peoples. In a broader sense, it can also refer to the mass migration of entire tribes or ethnic groups. However, the image often shown in maps of the Völkerwanderung, with a clear path of the migration movements, can be misleading.

In the classical view of the Völkerwanderung, the Germanic peoples were often seen as the raiders of the Roman provinces, but their organization and leadership differed from that of the Romans. They were not dependent on Roman gold to achieve their success, which means they may have had a greater influence on their region than, for example, the Goths, Franks, or Saxons on their respective areas.

When we examine the changes in positions over long periods of time, it turns out that these movements were irregular and sometimes primarily small-scale. There were periods of great discontinuity. For decades or even hundreds of years, the tradition-bearing groups remained inactive, and Roman traditions could be adopted. Regarding ethnicity, the same archaeological principle applies as with prehistoric archaeological cultures. Language and traditions were adopted from each other, and goods were traded. This often did not mean that peoples rolled over the map like bowling balls and destroyed everything. 

Peoples such as the Alans and the Germanic confederations were no strangers to the Romans. Around the time of the great migrations, the Roman legions consisted of more than 50% Auxiliae. 

Many Germanic tribes had supplied troops to the Roman armies for hundreds of years, adopting Roman traditions. In Northern Germany, among other things, the Runic script and bracteates were introduced. Most peoples from the migration period had Proto-Indo-European ancestors who lived in a resulting culture and religion. Often, these had already adopted Roman influences. Therefore, modern historians estimate that the role of migration was smaller during the migration period than previously thought.