Introduction: the Slavs

The Slavic peoples spoke languages related to the  Indo-European language group. They lived during the Migration Period (ca. 300 to 800 AD) in Central, Eastern, and Southeastern Europe. They laid the basic for the medieval and modern Slavic nations.

The area where the early Slavs settled remains a subject of debate among scholars. Many historians and archaeologists place the original Slavic homeland in Polesia, a region spanning parts of present-day Belarus, Ukraine, and Poland. Other theories placing the origin of the Slavs in the Near East have now been dismissed. Historians like Gerard Labuda point out that the Trzciniec culture (1700–1200 BC) may have played a significant role in the ethnogenesis of the Slavs. 

The early Slavs were referred to by Roman authors, such as Pliny the Elder, Tacitus, and Ptolemy, as the Veneti in the 1st and 2nd centuries AD. They described the Veneti as inhabitants of the lands east of the Vistula River and along the Venedic Bay (now the Bay of Gdańsk). Later, when the Slavs split into different groups during the Migration Period, they were referred to by Byzantine writers as the Veneti, Antes, and Sclaveni. The 6th-century historian Jordanes mentions the Slavs in his work Getica and states that they "descend from one people but are known by three different names: the Veneti, Antes, and Sclaveni."

The earliest archaeological finds related to the early Slavs are found in the Zarubintsy, Chernyakhov, and Przeworsk cultures, dating from the 3rd century BC to the 5th century AD. The archaeological data from this period is often difficult to interpret, as many of these finds were also attributed to other peoples, such as Iranian or Germanic groups. However, the materials we find, such as fortified settlements, pottery, weapons, and jewelry, testify to the emergence of a society that was increasingly developing. 

From the 6th century onwards, the Slavic material cultures begin to further distinguish themselves, with the emergence of the Praha-Korchak, Penkovka, Ipotești–Cândești, and Sukow-Dziedzice groups. These cultures are characterized by fortified settlements (gords), ceramic pots, and other artifacts that further affirm the Slavic identity.

The first written mention of the name "Slavs" dates from the 6th century AD, a time when the Slavic tribes had settled in much of Central and Eastern Europe. This was during the migration period (ca. 300 - 800 AD), when large groups of peoples, driven by the arrival of the Asian Huns, were pushed from the Pontic steppes towards the borders of the Roman Empire. Around this time, the Slavic peoples were in close contact with other peoples such as the Scythians, Sarmatians, Alans, and Goths. Parts of these peoples were gradually integrated into their community. 

During the 7th and 8th centuries, the Slavs expanded further: westward to the Elbe and the Alps, southward into the Balkans, where they absorbed the Illyrians and Thracians, and eastward towards the Volga. Between the 6th and 7th centuries, the Slavs were at the height of their expansion, although this period is not well documented, and the impact of their influence was often not fully understood. 

From the 7th century onwards, the Slavic people gradually became Christian. Both the Greek Orthodox and the Roman Orthodox Church played an important role in this. By the 12th century, the Slavs formed the core population of various medieval Christian states. The East Slavs settled in the Kievan Rus , the South Slavs in the Bulgarian empire, Serbia, the Duchy of Croatia, and Bosnia, while the West Slavs established their kingdoms in Nitra, Great Moravia, Bohemia, and Poland. 

One of the oldest known Slavic principalities was Carantania, founded in the 7th century by the East Alpine Slavs, the ancestors of the present-day Slovenes. This area included modern Slovenia, Eastern Friuli, and parts of Austria.

The Slavs developed their own language, Proto-Slavic, from Proto-Indo-European. This was the common ancestral language of many European and Asian languages. The Slavic languages exhibit many similarities with the Baltic languages, suggesting a shared history. Linguists like Frederik Kortlandt propose that Proto-Slavic developed in the region that was once the Proto-Indo-European homeland, on the Pontic-Caspian steppe.

The early Slavic language contained many words describing the people's daily environment, such as terms for family members (for example, "swekry" for the husband's mother). Interestingly, the Slavic language had few words for concepts specific to mountainous or coastal areas, which may indicate that the early Slavs primarily lived in forests and lowlands.

Additionally, there is evidence of influence from other language groups. Proto-Slavic contains several loanwords from Iranian languages, such as "bogъ" (god) and "sobaka" (dog), which originated from the Scythian and Sarmatian peoples who came into contact with the early Slavs. There are also Germanic influences, indicating that the Slavs had contact with Germanic peoples at various points in their history.

The early Slavs were described by various authors, including Procopius and Helmold. Procopius described the Slavs as a tall and strong people with light brown skin and reddish hair. They wore simple clothing and often had modest armament, including a spear and a light shield.

The names of Slavic tribes often refer to the area where they lived. For example, the Moravians lived along the river Morava, and the Milczanie lived in areas with löss ground. Other names, such as the Polans (pola means field) and the Drevlyans (drevo means tree), refer to the natural environment in which the Slavs found themselves.

There are also tribal names that likely have a non-Slavic origin, such as the Croats and the Antes. Interestingly, some tribal names appear in different geographical areas, indicating that Slavic groups spread over a large area and possibly had contact with other peoples.

Early Slavic settlements were no larger than 0.5 to 2 hectares. They were often temporary, likely due to their nomadic lifestyle, and were often located along rivers. They were characterized by sunken houses, known as Grubenhäuser in German or poluzemlianki in Russian. These houses, built over a rectangular pit, varied from 4 to 20 m² and accommodated a family. Each dwelling had a stone or clay oven in a corner, a feature of Eastern European homes. The population of a settlement was usually between fifty and seventy people. There was a central open area for communal activities and ceremonies, and the settlement was divided into production and residential zones.

The Slavs also built underground shelters, covered with wood to keep out the cold in winter. Log cabins were used as saunas's, as described by Ibrahim Ibn Ya'qub: "They have no bathhouses, but use huts in which the gaps are filled with something that resembles seaweed—they call it mech (moss). In one corner they place a stone stove and above the stove they open a hole to let the smoke escape. When the stove is hot enough, they close the hole and the door of the hut. Inside there are water pots which they pour over the hot stove, releasing steam."

In the 9th century, fortified strongholds, gords , often in the center of a group of settlements. But centers of power likely emerged as early as the second half of the 5th and the first half of the 6th century, concentrated along the Dnieper and Dniester rivers, and persisted until the beginning of the 7th century.

The Slavs preferred hard-to-reach places to avoid attacks, as mentioned in Maurice's Strategikon: "They live in almost impenetrable forests, rivers, lakes, and swamps, and have made the exits of their settlements in many directions due to the dangers they faced."

Although clothing varied depending on the region, season, and social status, a general picture can be reconstructed. Men wore long tunics of linen or wool up to the knee, with trousers underneath. Cloaks were sometimes worn over the tunic and fastened at the right shoulder, leaving the right arm free. Some cloaks were made of leather and lined with fur or other material. Hats and mittens were worn in winter, some decorated with fur. Leather shoes and boots were worn by both men and women, along with a belt with a knife and a whetstone hanging from it.

Women wore long, striped dresses of linen, sometimes with a apron over it. The dresses or tunics were sometimes made from a single piece. Unmarried women wore their hair in braids or loose, but covered it after marriage. Jewelry such as beads, earrings, and twisted wire bracelets were often worn, especially by wealthier women.

The Slavs had many musical instruments, as evidenced by historical records: "They have various types of lutes, pan flutes, and flutes an elbow long. Their lutes have eight strings. They drink mead. They play their instruments during the cremation of their dead and say that their joy demonstrates the grace of the Lord for the dead." – Ibn Rusta.

In early Slavic societies, it was customary to conquer women and marry outside their own tribe. In some areas, such as Bohemia and Ukraine, however, it was the woman who was allowed to choose her partner. According to the Primary Chronicle from the 12th century, the Vyatichi, Radimichs, and Severians lived in polygamous (multiple marriages) rather than monogamous marriages.

Adultery was severely punished by the Slavs, even with death. Ibn Fadlan described that both parties involved in adultery were killed with a axe and their bodies were hung on a tree. The Byzantine Emperor Maurice wrote about Slavic women that they loved their husbands so deeply that some women did not want to continue living after the death of their husband.

Slavic law was based on customs, as there were no written laws until the reign of Yaroslav the Wise. An important custom was hospitality: a tribe that treated guests poorly would be attacked by neighboring tribes. Ibn Rusta described that the Slavs paid taxes annually, with each man required to provide a garment for his daughter. Theft was severely punished, with ostracism or death by hanging.

Slavic soldiers also appeared in Byzantine records. Many of them were seen as brave mercenaries who distinguished themselves in rugged terrain. Slavs were known for their courage, such as a Slavic leader, Daurentius, who killed an Avar envoy when asked to submit to the Avars.

Initially, the Slavs fought without military formation, but in the 6th and 7th centuries, they developed heavier armament and more professional fighters. A hierarchy emerged in which military leaders and professional soldiers played a role. One of the largest Slavic armies in the 6th century consisted of 3,000 men who attacked Thrace and won several battles against the Byzantines.

The Slavic religion descends from their Proto-Indo-European culture. The first written source about the Slavic belief comes from the Byzantine historian Procopius in the 6th century AD. He described that the Slavs believed in a supreme god, the lord of thunder, and sacrificed bulls to this god. They also made other sacrifices in times of danger. The Arab historian Al-Masudi compared Slavic paganism with reason and spoke of a law followed by various peoples, including the Slavs. The Slavs believed in one supreme god, who produced spirits that controlled nature. They worshiped spirits of water, forests, fields, and ancestors, and honored their ancestors, making their religion a form of manism. The moon was seen as male, the sun as female, and some gods showed similarities with Baltic mythology, such as Perun (thunder god) and Veles (god of wealth and the underworld).

The Slavs believed in a tripartite world, symbolized by a world tree, with the heavens above, the earth in the middle, and the underworld below. Sacred places in nature, such as forests and springs, were revered as manifestations of the gods. Triglav, for example, was depicted with three heads symbolizing the three worlds.

In the 10th century, Prince Vladimir of Kievan Rus’ attempted to unify the Slavic beliefs by centralizing five gods in the state religion. This pantheon included Perun, Dazhbog, Stribog, Simargl, and Mokosh. Perun was the god of thunder and war, Veles the god of the underworld, and Dazhbog the sun god who brought life energy. Mokosh was the goddess of the earth and fertility.

In 988, Vladimir decided to convert to Christianity. He had the Slavic temples in Kiev destroyed and the idols of the gods burned. Nevertheless, the old Slavic faith persisted for a long time, especially in remote areas. This led to a syncretism, where old Slavic rituals and Christian practices merged.

The Christianization of the East Slavs began slowly, but many areas remained pagan for a long time. Kievan Rus' was only converted in the 980s by Vladimir the Great. Poland converted earlier, in 966, under Duke Mieszko I. Paganism persisted in Pomerania until the 12th century, and the last Slavic pagan settlement, the Rani, was only converted in 1168 by the Danes, after their temple to the god Svetovid was destroyed.