Introduction: The Vikings

The Vikings were seafarers from Scandinavia (present-day Denmark, Norway, and Sweden). Between the 8th and 11th centuries, they were known for their raids, trade, and settlements in Europe. They also traveled to the Mediterranean, North Africa, the Middle East, Greenland, and Vinland (present-day Newfoundland in Canada). This period is known as the Viking Age, and the term "Viking" often encompasses all inhabitants of Scandinavia. The Vikings had a significant impact on the history of Northern and Eastern Europe and contributed to the political and social development of England, parts of France, and the formation of Russia in Kiev.

Although the term "Viking" is often associated with sailors and warriors, it also refers to a broader culture. This included not only military expeditions but also art, shipbuilding, and social structures. As the Viking Age progressed, the Scandinavian kingdoms began to form and consolidate their own identities, which eventually led to the transition to the Middle Ages and the Christian influence in the region.

With their distinctive longships, the Vikings were excellent seafarers. They settled in the British Isles, the Faroe Islands, Iceland, Greenland, Normandy, and along the Baltic coast. In Eastern Europe, where they were known as the Varangians, they controlled trade routes along the Dnieper and Volga rivers. The Norsemen, Norse-Gaels, Rus, Faroese, and Icelanders emerged from these colonies. A group of Rus-Vikings even traveled to Constantinople, where they served as bodyguards for the Byzantine emperor before attacking the city. They also reached Georgia, Iran, and Arabia and were the first Europeans to visit North America, where they briefly settled in Vinland.

The Vikings not only brought their culture to other countries but also took slaves, concubines, and influences back to Scandinavia. This had a lasting impact on their history and genetic background. During the Viking Age, the Scandinavian kingdoms were gradually united into three larger states: Denmark, Norway, and Sweden.

The Vikings spoke Old Norse and used runes for inscriptions. Initially, they were followers of the Old Norse pagan religion, but later many converted to Christianity. Besides being warriors, most Vikings were farmers, fishermen, craftsmen, and traders. Although they are often depicted as brutal raiders, their civilization was complex and advanced, with its own laws, art, and architecture.

The Vikings were closely connected with other peoples and cultures, such as the Slavic tribes, with whom they fought, traded, and intermingled. This led to a strong influence of Slavic elements in Scandinavia. Researchers suggest that this interaction was greater than previously thought. Denmark, for example, functioned as an important hub where Slavic and Scandinavian cultures converged.

In the 10th century, a grave of a female warrior was found in Denmark. It was long assumed that she was a Viking, but new analyses suggest she was likely a Slavic woman from present-day Poland. Slavic influences are visible in Scandinavian royal marriages. For example, King Eric of Sweden married Gunhild from the Polish House of Piast, and his son Olof had a Slavic concubine, Edla. Their children became prominent figures: Emund the Old, King of Sweden, and Astrid, Queen of Norway. Also, Cnut the Great, King of Denmark, England and Norway, had Polish ancestors through his grandmother, possibly the former Polish queen of Sweden.

In 2020, Margaryan and his team analyzed the DNA of 442 European individuals from the Viking Age. They discovered that these people were genetically closely related to modern Scandinavians. The most common Y-DNA haplogroup was I1, followed by R1b and R1a, with the Scandinavian subgroup R1a-Z284 standing out. The study confirmed that Vikings often married women from other regions, as evidenced by the combination of Scandinavian Y-DNA and Southern European genetic traits in places like Foggia.

Additionally, migration was established, such as from Sweden to Estonia and Finland, and from Norway and Denmark to Ireland, Iceland, and Greenland. In Great Britain, it was difficult to distinguish Danish Viking genes from Anglo-Saxon genes. In Estonia, skeletons of warriors from Central Sweden were found buried with weapons and armor.

Regarding female lineage, there was a clear Scandinavian influence in areas close to Scandinavia, such as the Shetland and Orkney Islands. In more distant areas, Viking descent was mainly passed down through the male line, as in Liverpool, where up to 50% of the men had Norwegian genes.

Somerled, a Celtic warlord in West Scotland, was possibly of Viking descent himself, belonging to haplogroup R-M420. In Bodzia (Poland), the grave of an elite warrior was found, whose DNA and isotope research indicate he had Scandinavian-Russian roots and likely came to Poland with Prince Sviatopolk of Kiev.

The Viking Age is characterized not only by raids and explorations but also by the establishment of trade networks and cultural exchange. Trade routes extended from Scandinavia to Baghdad, where Vikings traded exotic goods such as fur, ivory, and slaves. Important trading cities like Birka, Hedeby, and Novgorod played a central role in these exchanges.

The Jomsvikings, a legendary group of warriors, were said to originate from Jomsborg, a settlement presumably located somewhere in the Oder estuary. However, the exact location of Jomsborg has not yet been determined.

While the Vikings were active in Europe, Scandinavia itself underwent significant changes. New influences led to the rise of kingdoms and an economic transition. Around the late 11th century, Denmark, Norway, and Sweden began to form as separate nation-states. Cities functioned as administrative and religious centers and introduced monetary systems modeled after English and German examples. At the same time, the influx of silver from the Middle East and England decreased, weakening the economic basic of Viking expeditions.

After the Viking Age, the kings of Norway continued to exert power in parts of Northern Britain and Ireland. Raids s continued into the 12th century, but the military ambitions of Scandinavian rulers took a new direction. In 1107, Sigurd I of Norway led a crusade to the eastern Mediterranean. The kings of Denmark and Sweden also actively participated in the Baltic Crusades in the 12th and 13th centuries.

The Vikings left a lasting influence on the place names and languages of the areas where they settled. Place names like Egilsay (Eigil's island), Ormskirk (Orm's church), and Tórshavn (Thor's harbor) reflect their presence. Even the parliament of the Isle of Man, the Tynwald, dates back to this time. In Shetland and Orkney, Old Norse completely replaced the original languages and evolved into the now-extinct Norn. In England and Normandy, the Vikings also influenced names such as York (horse bay) and Swansea (Sveinn's island).

The Old Norse language can also be found in modern Scandinavian languages, such as Swedish, Norwegian, Danish, Faroese, and Icelandic. In Eastern Europe, where Vikings were known as the Rus, the influence on Slavic languages was limited. This was likely due to the large differences between the languages and the more peaceful trade relations in this region.

The Vikings used runes for inscriptions, which have been found over a large area, from Greenland to Istanbul. Runes tell of journeys to places like Jerusalem, England, and Byzantium, and about monuments like the rune stone of Harald Bluetooth, on which he claimed the Christian conversion of Denmark. The use of runes persisted for a long time, especially in Älvdalen, Sweden, where they were in use until the 1920s. The runes of Älvdalen, known as Dalecarlian runes, are a unique variant closely related to Old Norse. Elfdalian, the language of Älvdalen, distinguishes itself from other Scandinavian languages and is more closely related to Old Norse. Although the language was considered a Swedish dialect, it meets the criteria of a separate language. There are still 2,000–3,000 speakers today, but the use of Elfdalian is declining due to the dominance of Swedish in education and administration.

The Viking society was divided into three classes: thralls, karls, and jarls, as described in the Eddic text Rígsþula. According to this text, society was formed by the god Ríg (Heimdallr). Archaeological findings confirm this social structure.

The thralls, or slaves, were the lowest class and made up a quarter of the population. Slaves were essential in Viking society. They performed heavy labor, such as building fortifications, canals, roads, and farms, and also served as trade goods. Thralls were often captured during Viking raids and then deployed or sold in Scandinavia or new settlements, for example, to Arabs in exchange for silver or silk.

Karls, or free farmers, formed the middle class. They owned land, livestock, and farms. They did daily work such as plowing, milking, and building houses, but often used thralls to help them. Other terms for this class were bonde or simply free men.

Jarls were the highest class, and had large estates, luxurious longhouses, and many slaves. Their role was focused on governance, politics, and leading expeditions. Upon the death of a jarl, his thralls were often sacrificed and buried with him, as evidenced by excavations.

Although the three classes were distinct, there were also intermediate forms and some social mobility, especially between karls and jarls.

Viking society also knew félag, communities based on trade, shared ownership of ships, or military obligations. Members were called félagi. In the military context, these were often drenge (warriors). Additionally, there were organized communities around defense, religion, legal systems, and assemblies like the Thing.

The Vikings ate a varied diet, with a strong emphasis on seafood. Whales, walruses, and seals were hunted, while oysters, mussels, shrimp, cod, and salmon were favored. In more southern areas, herring was an important part of the diet.

Milk from cows, goats, and sheep was used for drinks and products like butter, cheese, and skyr. Herbs and spices were both imported and grown locally. Popular herbs included caraway, mustard, horseradish, dill, and coriander.

The Vikings gathered and ate a variety of fruits, berries, and nuts. Apples (wild crab apples), plums, and cherries were part of their diet, as well as wild berries like raspberries, strawberries, and blackberries. Hazelnuts were important, and walnut shells were used not only for dye but also consumed.

The introduction of the plow in the early Viking Age significantly improved agriculture, making even poor soils fertile. Crops like rye, barley, oats, and wheat were locally grown and processed into porridge, bread, and beer. Flax was also essential for oil, food, and linen production.

Although bread was often made from wholemeal flour, it sometimes contained toxic weed seeds and small stone particles from the grinding stones used. This could damage teeth and make people ill.

The Vikings loved board and dice games such as hnefatafl and nitavl (mill Game). The game pieces were made of wood, bone, glass, or ivory. Festivities often involved beer and mead, music, poetry, and storytelling. Instruments like harps, lyres, and fiddles were popular.

The Vikings traded extensively in goods such as:

• Amber: Fossil resin from the North Sea, used for jewelry and trade.
• Fur: From martens, foxes, bears, and otters, valued for warmth.
• Textiles: High-quality woolen fabrics were spun and woven.
• Slaves: Captured people were traded within Scandinavia and far beyond.

Other goods included weapons, walrus ivory, salt, cod, and even falcons for the European nobility.

All free men were required to own weapons. Social status was reflected in the weapons:

• Jarls wore helmets, chainmail and swords (often symbolic).
• Bóndi fought with spears, shields and axes, with two-handed axes being very effective.

The old Norse religion was a polytheistic belief that arose when the North Germanic peoples separated from other Germanic groups. The Vikings believed in various gods and goddesses, divided into two groups: the Æsir and the Vanir. Well-known gods were Odin and Thor. The belief revolved around Yggdrasil, the world tree, which connected the different worlds. There were various afterlives governed by different gods. The religion was mainly passed down through oral tradition, with a strong emphasis on rituals. Kings and chieftains fulfilled the role of high priest and played an important role in performing sacrifices and rituals, which often took place in open spaces such as forests and lakes. Additionally, there were practitioners of Seiðr, a type of magic considered shamanistic. 

Christianity gained more and more ground. Denmark and Norway established dioceses in the 11th century, and in 1103 the first archdiocese in Scandinavia was founded in Lund, then part of Denmark. The church changed the religious and social landscape, and slavery—once an important profit model for the Vikings—was discouraged. Because Christians were not allowed to keep fellow Christians as slaves, this practice largely disappeared, removing the economic incentive for raids. This marked the end of the Viking Age and the integration of Scandinavia into Christian Europe.

The Viking identity was preserved in remote areas such as Iceland, but groups often quickly assimilated into other cultures, such as the Franks in Normandy.