Get the look: Samhain, Celtic Halloween, man

We all know that modern Halloween has come over from America and that this celebration has its origins in the Irish samhain. But what does this mean in a broader Indo-European context? What do these festivals tell us about our form of ancestor worship? In this blog, we try to place samhain, the precursor to Halloween, in a broader context in an accessible way. 

Indo-European paganism is a dharmic nature religion; we speak of dharmic because there were prescriptions and rules that maintained and supported the cosmic order. 

In this, ancestors play an important role. For thousands of years, the Proto-Indo-European peoples buried high-ranking deceased in burial mounds. On the steppes, these mounds were visible from afar. They were sacred places that emphasized the status of the ancestor. Tribes, which were predominantly nomadic, regularly returned to these places to make offerings in honor of the ancestors. The people buried in these burial mounds were also a personification of the semi-mythological ancestors of the tribe. Their heroic deeds and achievements were passed down and revered for generations. Their actions were immortalized in the bardic oral traditions of the people. Peoples of Indo-European descent, such as the Greeks, Romans, Germans, Celts, Balto Slavs, Indo-Iranians, Indo-Aryans maintained this tradition. In this context, we must see the Celtic Samhain, the Slavic Dziady, and also the Germanic Álfablót. 

All these festivals have one thing in common: commemorating the deceased ancestors. These can be both one's own ancestors and the mythological ancestors of the tribe or clan. Ancestor worship is a very important practice in Indo-European cultures. It connects the people and creates a bond of honor and pride. 

Samhain is a Celtic holiday that begins on the evening of October 31st. The Celtic day began at sunset, not sunrise as it does today. The festival marked the end of the harvest season and the beginning of winter.

Some Neolithic passage tombs in Great Britain and Ireland are aligned with the sunrise at the time of Samhain, which may indicate a much older origin of this festival. 

October 31st falls approximately halfway between the autumn equinox and the winter solstice. The light season transitions into the dark season, with winter symbolizing death. After Samhain, the wild hunt begins towards Yule (midwinter) and then the light (life) returns to the earth. 

During Samhain, people honored their ancestors and made offerings at their graves. This could be one's own ancestors or the semi-mythological ancestors of the tribe. The period was considered a time when the veil between the world of the living and the dead (the Otherworld) was thin, allowing souls of the deceased to come closer.

The night of Samhain was not without danger. Because the world of the dead lay right next to the world of the living, traveling between both worlds was easier. In Old Irish mythology, it is clear that there were monsters and evil spirits in the underworld that could cross over to the world of the living during this night. 

Samhain is frequently mentioned in Irish manuscripts and is associated with significant events in Irish mythology. These stories were written down by Christian monks between the 9th and 13th centuries. They were likely passed down orally for hundreds of years before that. Often, the texts known today are copies of earlier texts.

From this literature, we can deduce that festivals and large gatherings took place. Tochmarc Emire (10th century) names Samhain as the first of the four seasonal festivals. According to Echtra Cormaic (12th century), the High King of Ireland (ard rí na hÉrenn) organized the Feast of Tara every seventh Samhain, during which he established new rules, laws, and duties. The festival was also a time when people had to give a portion of their harvest to their lord, as described in an extreme version in Lebor Gabála Érenn (12th century).

Such gatherings, where the heroes of Ireland assembled to feast, drink, and hold contests, were a popular setting in the stories because conflicts easily arose, or love was sealed, and all heroes were gathered in full glory.

It was a time of peace. In Táin Bó Cúailnge (12th century), the cattle raid on Ulster begins on Samhain, a day when no one expects war.

During Samhain, beings from the Otherworld came into the human world, as recounted in Macgnímartha Finn (12th century) and Acallam na Senórach (early 13th century). Burial mounds were seen as gateways to the Otherworld. In the Dinnshenchas of Móin Gai Glais, Cúldub kills someone on Samhain and is killed in revenge by a certain Gae Glass. In Dunaire Finn, Samhain is not mentioned, but Cúldub emerges from a burial mound to steal cattle, and the hero Fionn pursues him. He throws a spear at Cúldub, who stumbles into the burial mound. A woman slams the door to the mound shut, and Finn's thumb gets caught. He puts it in his mouth to relieve the pain. Because his thumb was in the Otherworld, Fionn gains great wisdom, possibly referring to ancestral knowledge.

From Echtra Neraí (10th century) and Togail Bruidne Dá Derga (11th century), it is clear that Samhain was associated with death, not only of individuals but of entire populations. In some versions of the former story, Nera remains in the Otherworld for a long time and convinces his rulers of this by bringing back summer flowers as proof.

How the ancestors exactly celebrated Samhain remains unclear. But by studying Old Irish texts, Indo-European moral expressions, Old Irish law, and early modern celebrations, we can reconstruct it.

Unlike the Germanic and Scandinavian álfablot, the entire community likely participated in one large, central celebration of Samhain, and the festival was not limited to the domestic sphere. It might have been that once in a while, a larger Samhain festival was held than usual.

Men and women washed themselves and put on their finest clothes to present themselves well. They went to a central place where they were received by the king (rí) or his nobility (the flaith). Hospitality and generosity were very important to ensure the king's status. If he did not receive his guests according to their status, a conflict could arise, and his good name would be tarnished. The guests were given food. Possibly gifts were exchanged, or this was the moment when clients gave gifts to their lord.

Offerings were made to the dead, both to one's own deceased family members and to mythological ancestors. The offering was likely performed by the druid and by the king, who also fulfilled a spiritual role. This emphasized and confirmed the bond between ancestors, law, beauty, and tribe (túath).

At nightfall, two large fires were lit. Tribesmen and cattle (cows) were possibly led between the fires as a ritual cleansing. In the early modern period, all fires were first extinguished before being relit from the central bonfire.

The bards told stories and sang songs about the heroic deeds of the ancestors. This was the greatest gift one could give to the dead: eternal fame through the telling of their story. There were competitions, such as spear throwing and horse riding.

Festivals were also an opportunity to make business agreements, such as dividing grazing land for the next year among themselves. It might be that the king, either the rí túaithe (king of the tribe) or the high king (ard rí), read new laws to the gathered revelers. He was likely supported in this by his judges (brithemna), for even the king was not above the law. 

Such gatherings of the tribe were also where youth could meet each other and connections were made that eventually led to marriages. Thus, the festival of the dead also influenced new life. The ritual offerings must have made an impression on the children of the clan. 

They were likely entertained on the evening of Samhain with stories of gruesome monsters that came over from the other world to the world of the living and about the magic present in the burial mounds. Soon, sometime between Samhain and Yule,  they themselves would have to go on an adventure to visit the dead in their burial mounds and bring back offerings as proof.

We have assembled the outfits of an Early Irish man and woman from the early 5th century AD. The characters in this blog, whom we have named Conchobar and Gráinne, hold the status of bóaire, meaning free farmer. Conchobar owns a piece of land and, together with his neighbor, owns a pair of oxen with which they plow their land. In addition, Conchobar has livestock, 6 cows, 15 sheep, and a beehive. 

They lived just before the introduction of Christianity. There are no written sources from this period, but from basic of later texts, we can reconstruct a lot about it.

The couple is going to participate in the Samhain ritual, which is held communally within the túath (clan/tribe) and is led by the king of the túath (rí túaithe).

Like other clan members, they have looked forward to this all month. They have gathered their offerings, for example, part of the grain harvest, honey from their hives, butter, or a piece of pork. Higher circles offered more extensively, possibly a whole (white) bull, horse, and mead.

For the composition of Gráinne (woman) click here.

In the 5th century, Old Irish men probably wore a long tunic, called léine . These garments, unlike later models, did not have pocket-shaped sleeves and were simple in design. An example of a fairly simple léine is that of Conchobar, a style that was common among the general population. The luxury and refinement of a léine were directly related to the social status of the wearer: the more luxurious the fabric and finish, the wealthier the person wearing it. The Old Irish word "léine" still lives on in modern Gaelic, where the word for T-shirt T-léine is.

Over the léine, Old Irish men wore the ionar, an outer garment comparable to the caftan worn by Germanic and Viking men in the same period. The ionar not only served a practical function, like providing extra warmth, but like the léine, it also acted as a status symbol. The wealth of the wearer was often visible through the materials and the finish of the ionar. In the warmer months, such as in summer, the léine could be worn without the ionar.

The most important garment in the Old Irish Gaelic culture was the brat, a large cloak worn over the léine and ionar. This roomy cloak was versatile and practical, large enough to serve as a blanket for those who had to sleep in the open field. The brat could be worn in different ways, depending on the situation and the needs of the wearer.

When Conchobar worked on the land, he tucked his brat under his belt, allowing him to easily remove the cloak from his neck and wear it around his waist in warm weather. This convenience made the brat a multifunctional garment. This practice later evolved into the Scottish belted plaid, a precursor to the well-known Scottish kilt. Thus, we see how the clothing of the Old Irish culture shaped the basic for later Celtic attire in Scotland.

In 5th-century Ireland, trousers were likely seldom worn. The Gaelic population of Ireland, and later also Scotland, preferred wearing a long tunic, the léine, instead of trousers or footwear. This choice can partly be attributed to the marshy conditions of the landscape, which is rich in peat soil. As a result, the fields were often wet and muddy. Avoiding trousers, leg wrappings or footwear made it easier to dry the legs quickly, which was a practical adaptation to the local environment. This practice continued until the 17th century.

However, in the 9th-century Book of Kells, a warrior is depicted wearing a trousers. This trousers shows strong similarities to the model found in Thorsberg, Germany. This suggests that there was some cultural exchange and influence, even within the clothing styles of different regions's. For the occasion, we have given Conchobar a trousers, leg wrappings, and footwear, which gives his character a more versatile appearance and aligns with the iconography of that time.

In Old Irish society, as with other Indo-European peoples, it was probably customary to wash yourself and put on your best clothes before participating in a sacred ritual. The gods dominate the cosmos, which stands for structure and beauty. 

The torque has a Proto-Indo-European origin and served as an important symbol within various societies. Torcs, along with oath rings and upper arm bands, represent the taking of an oath and entering into commitments. This is particularly relevant, as the Proto-Indo-European society had a strong oath-bound structure, where loyalty and fidelity were crucial.

Celtic warriors are often depicted with torcs, which emphasized their status and loyalty. Archaeological discoveries have uncovered luxurious gold torcs, but the essence of the torque remains the same, whether it is made of wood, steel, or precious metal. This illustrates the breadth of torc usage across different cultures. Both the Celts, Vikings, Romans, and Indo-Iranians wore torcs, underscoring their shared cultural and moral value. These pieces of jewelry served not only as ornaments but were also imbued with meaning, connected to identity, status, and social obligations. Wedding rings may possibly be derived from this. Conchobar is a bóaire (free farmer) and thus automatically belongs to the Old Irish warrior class. The torque stands for his loyalty to the túath.

In this composition, we have given Conchobar a 6th-century Germanic belt. Such belts were widely worn in the Germanic world and were not only functional but also aesthetically appealing. Moreover, they could be traded as an export product, highlighting their value and popularity in various cultures.

In the absence of a replica of a 5th-century Old Irish example, we have used this belt as a practical concession. Although it does not exactly match the clothing style of Conchobar's time, it reflects the regional influences and trade relations that existed between the Germanic and Irish peoples. This emphasizes the dynamics of clothing and fashion in Old Irish society and the connections with broader Indo-European traditions.

We have given Conchobar an early sax. This represents his role within the warrior class of the túath. It is possible that Conchobar acquired this sax through trade, highlighting the interconnections and cultural exchanges between the Germanic and Irish peoples. This choice of a Germanic sax in the representation of Conchobar is an artistic interpretation, which not only highlights his warrior role but also the dynamic trade relations that existed in this period. Together, these elements paint a richer picture of the social and military structures in Old Irish culture.

The most important weapon of Conchobar was undoubtedly the spear. Spears played a central role in Old Irish society and were not only military weapons, but also symbols of status and combat readiness. Old Irish contains more than thirty different words for spear, highlighting the versatility and important place of this weapon in the culture and warfare of the time.