Introduction: The Copper Age

The Copper Age, also known as the Chalcolithic, was a period in the prehistory of Europe that lasted from about 5,000 to 2,000 BC. This time followed the Neolithic and preceded the Bronze Age. It was an era of late-megalithic structures and the first presence of Indo-European languages in Europe.

An archaeological culture is defined on basic of material remains. This is not the same as an ethnic culture, which also considers language, traditions, religion, history, and social structure. Sometimes an archaeological culture overlaps with an ethnic culture, but often it does not.

When studying the transition from one culture to another, it is important not to judge too quickly. In many cases, such transitions indicate changes in habits or lifestyle rather than the replacement of a population. This requires a nuanced and open approach. 

See this article for more information on Archaeological and Ethnic Cultures. 

To gain a better understanding of where archaeological cultures originate, we mention the possible DNA composition for some cultures. For a culture that emerged through significant mixing, we provide the entire composition. However, if one group was dominant, we only name that dominant group.

Please note that European cultures are always a mix of different groups and have influenced each other. No culture was entirely isolated from other cultures.

The first copper objects appeared around 5,000 BC in Southeastern Europe. From there, they spread to Eastern and Central Europe. This likely occurred because people became increasingly skilled at making ceramics. Pots had thinner walls and were fired at higher temperatures. These kilns also proved suitable for smelting copper. The smelting of copper may have been discovered by accident, possibly during an attempt to make dye.

Around 4,000 BC, people in Hungary and Austria began experimenting with a mixture of copper and arsenic, which we call arsenical bronze. This made the copper stronger, although it was not as robust as bronze that was later made with tin.

Between 4,200 and 3,500 BC, the climate in Europe changed. This had significant consequences for the Neolithic farmers. Harvests failed, there was famine, and diseases spread. Due to the food shortage, violence between villages increased. Many settlements constructed fortifications to protect themselves. It is known from this period that about 10% of the found skeletons show signs of violence. In places like Talheim and Schletz, mass graves have even been found that indicate large-scale massacres.

The climate change also affected migration. The Proto-Indo-European herders from the Eurasian steppes began to enter Europe around 3,500 BC. These nomads lived very differently from the Neolithic farmers. For example, they did not use Venus figurines and did not have cities or villages like the farmers.

According to researcher Marija Gimbutas, these herders would have destroyed Old Europe as a violent horde. However, archaeological and genetic evidence suggests that this is probably not correct. The arrival of the steppe peoples was likely more complex and less violent than previously thought.

Between 3500 and 3000 BCE, there was no warfare conducted on horseback. The Proto-Indo-Europeans used long bows with stone arrowheads, which were not suitable for shooting from a horse. Their martial culture revolved around individual heroic deeds. This is also reflected in ancient stories such as the Rig Veda and the Iliad. Large, organized armies, where the individual was part of a larger whole, only emerged around 1000 BCE.

Genetic research shows that modern Europeans primarily carry the Proto-Indo-European haplogroups R1a and R1b. These originate from a small group of men. However, the mitochondrial DNA, which is passed down through the mother, shows a great diversity. This indicates that the Proto-Indo-Europeans married women from Neolithic communities.

Horses eventually drastically changed the way of warfare. They enabled rapid raids over great distances. These raids focused on cattle theft. The aim was not to annihilate entire populations but to achieve personal glory. This was an important value for the Proto-Indo-Europeans.

Young men used the booty, such as livestock, to pay a dowry. However, sometimes women were abducted, which was seen as a form of marriage at that time. This is evident from old laws from countries like Ireland and India, where abduction of women was recognized as one of the various forms of marriage. 

After 3500 BC, horses began to appear in the Trans-Caucasian region. Around 3000 BC, they were also used in Southern Germany, for example at Galgenberg. During this period, Proto-Indo-European herders mixed with Neolithic farmers. These farmers sought protection from conflicts and famine, and through marriages, the population's DNA became increasingly Proto-Indo-European.

Around 3500 BC, the Proto-Indo-European herders moved from the Pontic-Caspian Steppe to Eastern Europe. There, they mixed with the Dnieper-Donets culture. Subsequently, they spread to the Baltic region and Denmark. During this migration, Indo-European languages also spread. This led to the emergence of new mixed cultures with Proto-Indo-European influences, but also many Neolithic traditions.

Notable cultures from this period include:

• The Corded Ware Culture in Poland (3400-2800 BC),
• The Baden Culture (3300-2800 BC),
• The Yamnaya Culture (3500-2000 BC),
• The Corded Ware Culture (2900-2450 BC).

Some of these cultures (Corded Ware and Yamnaya cultures) predominantly had Proto-Indo-European DNA. Others like the Baden culture and Globular Amphora culture had only a little Steppe DNA. This possibly reflects a society with a small Proto-Indo-European elite at the top.

In the Danube region, the Lengyel Culture expanded into the Czech Republic and Poland, but later retreated. At the same time, the Boian-Marica Culture in Bulgaria and Wallachia developed a monarchical system. This is evident from a royal burial site on the Black Sea coast. This structure was later adopted by the Bodrogkeresztur culture in the Tisza region. Likely, labor specialization, economic inequality, and the threat of invasions played a role in these developments.

In Western Europe, the Michelsberg culture along the Rhine and Seine displaced the older Rössen culture. Around the Mediterranean, a network of cultures emerged, such as the Chassey culture in southern France and the Lagozza culture in northern Italy. These cultures shared an important trading activity: the exchange of honey-colored flint. At the same time, traces of violence indicate conflicts in this region.

During the same period, Ötzi, the ice mummy found in the Alps, lived. Furthermore, the megalithic building style spread in the Atlantic region. This building style brought agriculture to areas that were less developed until then.

The first half of the third millennium BC is characterized by significant restructurings. The Danube Peoples formed the powerful Baden culture, which extended over what would later become the Austro-Hungarian Empire. This culture mainly consisted of Neolithic farmers , but possibly with a Proto-Indo-European elite. In the Aegean Sea, the Cycladic Culture emerged around 2800 BC.

Meanwhile, the Proto-Indo-European Yamnaya peoples gained dominance in southern Russia and Ukraine. In the west, the megalithic culture spread from southern Sweden to southern Spain, while the Mediterranean and Danube cultures fragmented into smaller groups.

In the Iberian region, fortified cities like Vila Nova de São Pedro (Portugal) and Los Millares (southern Spain) emerged around 2600 BC. Despite their differences, these civilizations maintained peaceful trade relations. In Aquitaine (France), the unexpected Artenac culture appeared, quickly gaining influence in western and northern France and Belgium. In Poland, a small group of Indo-Europeans mixed with Neolithic farmers, forming the Globular Amphora Culture.

Between 2500 and 2000 BC, many cultures in Europe changed. The Catacomb Culture, originating from the Yamnaya peoples, expanded into Poland. This influenced the transition from the Globular Amphora Culture to the Corded Ware Culture. In Great Britain, copper was scarcely used during this time, causing historians to question whether Great Britain truly experienced a Copper Age.

Around 2400 BC, the Corded Ware Culture spread into western Germany, Denmark, and southern Sweden. This culture replaced older groups in these regionss. Meanwhile, the Artenac peoples reached Belgium. During the same period, the once-thriving Danube cultures completely disappeared.

Around the same time, circa 2300 BC, much changed in the Aegean region as well. The Cycladic Culture disappeared, giving way to the Minoan palace culture on Crete. This new civilization had its roots with the Neolithic farmers and grew to become one of the most significant cultures in the Mediterranean.

The Bell Beaker culture emerged around 2800 BC. It began as a pottery style, originating from descendants of Neolithic farmers. This style, inspired by pottery from North Africa, spread from Portugal to Central Europe and the Netherlands. In the Proto-Indo-European culture, the bell-shaped pottery gained a new significance. It became a symbol of their dharmic religion and society, which revolved around cosmic order and reciprocal agreements. Around 2300 BC, the first Bell Beaker pottery was found in Bohemia. From that moment, it began to spread further and played an important role in the identity of Proto-Indo-European groups.

In some regionss, such as the Netherlands, Germany, and the British Isles, the population changed drastically. The DNA profile in these areas can be traced back up to 90% to the people of the Bell Beaker culture. This demonstrates how significant the influence of this culture was, both genetically and culturally.

In the Copper Age, the economic composition in Europe changed significantly. Even in areas where copper was not yet used, production sites emerged that distributed goods over great distances. Mining of metals and stones developed strongly, and these raw materials were processed into valuable utilitarian objects.

The Copper Age had overlap in many areas of Europe with the Bronze Age, and therefore the Copper Age is often skipped in chronology. The bronze Age began in Europe in 3200 BC - 800 BC. While from 4000 BC onwards, experiments were conducted with arsenic bronze made from a mix of copper and arsenic.