Hack silver in antiquity and the early Middle Ages

Hack silver was a common form of silver among the Vikings, who used it during their raids and trading activities. The Romans are also believed to have used hack silver in their contacts with the Pictish tribes. 

In the Achaemenid Levant, around 425-420 BC, eastern hack silver was found, including jewelry and Greek coins. These were part of the Achaemenid coin circulation. The widespread acceptance of Greek silver coins around 480 BC seems to be the result of collaborations between the Greeks and Phoenicians. This happened partly in response to the earlier expansion of the Phoenicians and their control over the silver trade, which often took place through hacksilver.

In the Cisjordan Corpus, concentrations of hacksilver hoards have been found in Southern Phoenicia, an area that in antiquity was associated with the Shardana, a tribe of the Sea Peoples related to Sardinia. In her analysis of the hacksilver pieces, Thompson links this archaeological evidence to lead isotope ratios that match the ore signatures of Sardinia. This forms the first tangible evidence that the two regions were connected during this important period. Moreover, these hacksilver hoards provide the first recognized evidence of contact between Europe and Asia concerning the prehistoric trade in metals.

Torcs clearly had great value and were often found in pieces, suggesting they may have been used as a form of wealth storage. Additionally, it has been noted that the golden torcs from the Iberian region were manufactured with fixed weights, which were multiples of the Phoenician shekel.

The term 'ruble', the base value of the modern Russian currency, is derived from the Russian word рубить (rubit), meaning 'to chop'. An example of a Viking scale with weights was found on the Scottish island of Gigha. Hacksilver could originate from silver objects such as Roman or Byzantine tableware, church treasures, relics, book covers, and jewelry from various regions's. Hoards often consisted of a combination of hacksilver, coins, bars, and complete small jewelry. Also, coins were sometimes used as hacksilver.

Ibn Fadlan, a 10th-century Arab traveler and writer, described in his travel accounts the trading practices of the Rus', a group of Vikings active along the Volga and in other parts of present-day Russia and Ukraine. In his account, he refers to the use of hacksilver by the Rus', which served not only as a medium of exchange but also as a symbol of wealth. This practice highlighted their economic habits and social status.

Arm rings and ‘torcs’ were regularly used as Viking hack silver. These arm rings had an important symbolic function within Viking society. They were used as oath rings and given by rulers as a gift.