In this blog, we follow Servius, a Roman legionary of the second legion under Titus Flavius Vespasianus in the year 43 AD. He is a tesserarius (captain of the guard) in Noviomagus Reginorum in Britain, a military camp set up as part of the Roman invasion of the British island by Emperor Claudius.

From 27 BC, the Roman Empire was ruled by an emperor, the princeps (first) or imperator (commander). He had the powers of the main magistrates from the republican periods combined and was not only the sole ruler and highest military commander but also the religious leader of the empire. The imperial cult established by Augustus did not portray the emperor as a despot or military ruler, but as a pater patriae, a sort of divine 'father of the people' who was the ultimate patron with all Romans as his clients. Just as a father in the patriarchal Roman society ruled over the family, the emperor ruled over the Roman Empire.

Early emperors were succeeded by their (adoptive)children, the dynasties ruled over Rome. The names Caesar and Augustus were inherited just like the titles princeps and imperator. Although they were a king in everything but the name, the emperors ensured they were not regarded as a monarch. The title princeps meant 'first among equals', of both the senate (princeps senatus) and the people of Rome (princeps civitas). This title was also unofficially used by the consuls, the elected leaders of the republic, an important choice of words. For although Rome was functionally no longer a republic at this time, the ideal of the republic formed the foundation of Roman identity. The Romans continued to call themselves a republic until the fall of the Western Empire in 476.

Although Augustus managed to justify the position of emperor by (according to himself) bringing stability and peace, there was much conflict and succession struggle within the dynasty he left behind. Emperors were not elected, which, much like a monarchy, resulted in very volatile succession. The Praetorian Guard, which Augustus had established as the bodyguard of himself and the imperial family, also played an important role in imperial politics, in conflict with the senate; particularly by deposing and electing emperors. This is evident, for example, when Emperor Caligula was assassinated in 41 AD after an autocratic reign of terror by a conspiracy of senators and his nephew Claudius was appointed by the Praetorian Guard as the new imperator. 

In 43 AD, Emperor Claudius began the conquest of Great Britain, which had previously been visited by Caesar and the Thirteenth Legion. He did this to secure his popularity within the army and his position of power as emperor. One of the blunders of his predecessor, the aforementioned Caligula, was the cancellation of a planned invasion of the British Isles. By continuing these plans, Claudius ensured an influx of prosperity and prestige for the imperial house, following a period of humiliation and weakening.

On the British Isles, a conflict had also arisen that Claudius could capitalize on; the Briton-Celtic tribe of the Atrebates, an ally of Rome, was at that time being attacked by the anti-Roman Catuvellauni. This allowed the Romans, with their invasion, to present themselves as an expedition to aid the Atrebates. The Roman invasion force of about 40,000 men departed in the summer of 43 from Gaul to the southern coast of Britain, although historians do not fully agree on the exact departure point and landing site. The Atrebates provided the Roman military with locations to settle and establish winter camps. An example of this is Noviomagus Reginorum, which was used by the Second Legion of the future Emperor Vespasian.

The Roman army moved from the coast inland and won important battles at the British rivers without much resistance, where the Catuvellauni were definitively defeated. Emperor Claudius himself did not have a military character and only came after several British-Celtic tribes had surrendered that same year. This early Roman conquest was such a success that Claudius, according to the Roman historian Cassius Dio, was called back to Rome after only 16 days to hold a triumphal procession. In the coming decades, the conquest of the British island would prove to be more work than expected. The instability of the Roman imperial house, uprisings such as that of Queen Boudica, and constant border conflicts with the Picts in the rugged north would prevent the Romans from fully capturing Great Britain.

In addition to establishing the Praetorian Guard, the army organization of the principate was adopted from the late republic. The legionary's armor during the principate was provided by the Roman government. They produced armor, weapons, and clothing in special fabricae, workshops throughout the entire empire. Weaponry was produced and reused on a large scale: this made the equipment of the legions consistent. The distinction between the hastati, principes, and triarii had disappeared during this period. Instead, the army was composed of Legionaries, auxiliary cavalry, and auxiliary archers. The advantage of this was that the focus was on a consistent type of infantry with consistent armament, training, and organization.

The equipment of a legionary was intended to be as practical and functional as possible. A legionary had to be able to not only fight in his full gear but also march long distances in a day or stand guard for long periods.

Roman legionaries like Servius had similar clothing and equipment, but were not uniform. Although they were assigned their gear by the Roman state, much was also shared or inherited from previous generations. For example, Servius received his helmet, shield, gladius, belt, and sandals from the state but wears the old chainmail shirt of his grandfather Publius, who fought in the second legion under Emperor Augustus.

In Roman society, the woolen (or linen) Tunic was the main garment for both men and women. During the Republican period, it was very fashionable to make these long and flowing, to give the same appearance as the more formal toga worn by Roman citizens. However, this was not practical for legionaries, and therefore they wore a short tunic.

The tunic that Servius is wearing is made of wool and is red dyed. In modern depictions, Legionaries often wear red, as this colour symbolized the war god Mars. However, it is unclear whether legionaries wore a colored tunic at all, as the state produced their equipment as cheaply as possible. Also, the colour was not uniform per legion (or even per cohort). Soldiers often wore tunics from other batches or received clothing sent from home.

The head opening of the tunic is rather wide: therefore, Servius, like other legionaries, wears a scarf to ensure that his collarbones and shoulders are protected against possible blisters or skin irritation from the lorica hamata.

The belt that Servius wears is not only intended to attach his gladius and pugio, but also as a symbol of his warrior status. Only Roman soldiers were allowed to wear these, both on and off duty. These belts have been found in many different designs and were often richly decorated by soldiers, as they had little else to spend their pay on during their stationing. This was often done with a series of plates (lamna) and from the first century AD, a type of apron of decorated hangers (baltea): these were made of brass or tin. There are also many depictions from the first century BC of cingula in a 'cowboy' construction, where two belts were worn crossed over each other. This was probably reserved for the wealthiest legionaries, who could afford two decorated belts.

The sandals that Servius wears are a practical military model worn by legionaries. Military sandals were comfortable and light in design: this allowed soldiers to perform hard work, stand on guard for long periods, and march long distances per day without developing blisters. Soldiers themselves fitted the sandals with nails to provide grip on unpaved or natural ground. They could also use them to finish off fallen enemies on the battlefield as Roman units marched over them.

Sandals wore out the fastest of any part of the military equipment: often a soldier needed a new pair each year. This meant that a huge number was produced annually in the military fabricae. This also meant that unlike the rest of the equipment, they could not be passed down from generation to generation within a legionary's family.

Servius carries a cloak with him for cold or bad weather. The Roman cloak was a large piece of wool, held in place with a fibula. Roman soldiers wore cloaks to keep themselves warm and dry: the latter was very important to protect the equipment from rust or dirt. They may also have played a role in night operations, to camouflage legionnaires. The cloak could even be used to protect the arm during a fight: there is a report of legionnaires being ambushed by the enemy without shield and wrapping their cloaks around their forearms to use as shield.

From wall paintings, it can be deduced that Roman legionnaires mostly wore brown, beige, and gray cloaks. This was because the cloaks were made of undyed wool, so the natural oil of the sheep could keep the cloak water-resistant. Centurions and other field commanders wore red, white, or even purple cloaks to stand out: Julius Caesar was known for wearing his cloak during battles for dramatic effect. The cloak also became an increasingly important part of the legionnaires' equipment as their empire expanded further north.

For the wet, cold weather in Britain, a cloak is indispensable. To close it, Servius uses a fibula that he plundered from a Celtic warrior on the battlefield. This form of cloak fastening came from Britain and would be spread throughout the empire by Roman soldiers in the coming century.

As a tesserarius (‘tablet writer’ from tessera, tablet), Servius is responsible for the night watch of his centuria's camp. These non-commissioned officers were often indistinguishable in equipment and position on the battlefield from other legionaries, although Servius always wears feathers on his helmet to stand out. It is his duty to appoint the guards and keep track of the camp's daily password on a wax tablet. These tablets were small and could be easily erased, making them unsuitable for long texts, but very handy for writing down things temporarily.

Most Romans were not literate by modern standards, but a part of the population could understand simple texts. Even though he has not received extensive education, Servius has partly undergone training to read and write a bit. This is why he was appointed to the role of tesserarius by his Centurion. He also reads the letters his comrades receive to them or helps them write to their families on the mainland.

To protect his body, Servius uses the large Republican scutum (shield) and wears a Galea helmet and a lorica hamata (chainmail shirt). To fight, he uses a pilum (a heavy javelin), a gladius (a short sword), and a pugio (dagger).

To protect his head, Servius wears a Coolus helmet made of brass, a helmet model that, like the earlier Roman Montefortino helmet, was based on Celtic designs. This helmet had special ear holes for better hearing and a further developed plate that protected the wearer's neck and back. Servius has written his name in his helmet so he knows which one is his. Like his grandfather Publius, he has also written the abbreviated name of his legion (Secunda Augusta) next to it, although most soldiers do not do this.

Servius wears two goose feathers on his helmet, which are attached in special feather holders. Most helmets had ways to attach feathers or plumes of horse hair; these were often worn during military parades but also to show rank. By wearing his feathers in everyday life, he shows his rank as tesserarius.

The Lorica hamata was a Roman chainmail shirt worn by Roman soldiers from the third century BC to the fourth century AD. Sleeves were often omitted to make it more comfortable for long periods of wear, especially during marches. Mail may have been directly adopted from the Celts, as the La Tène culture invented this form of armor around 400 BC. It seems that from about 120 BC, the Lorica hamata had become a standard part of the legionary's equipment. During the late Republic and the Empire, the lorica hamata, like other parts of the armament, was provided by the state. However, Servius inherited his chainmail shirt from his grandfather Publius.

Legionaries in the late republic and early empire had a pilum or two pila as part of their equipment. This was a heavy javelin, which was thrown at the enemy before the legionaries executed a charge. The weapon could also be used as a regular spear. 

From the 4th century BC, the Romans used the scutum, probably adopted from the Celts just like the Montefortino helmet and the Lorica Hamata. In the late republic, it was approximately 130 cm long and oval-shaped, but in the imperial period, this was shield shorter (about 110 cm) and took on a rectangular shape, which was slightly curved. As a result, the imperial shield was lighter, allowing legionaries to march longer. It also allowed the Romans to form new formations, such as the well-known testudo, which was specifically developed for sieges.

From the second century BC to the third century AD, the Romans generally used the 'Gladius Hispaniensis' (Spanish sword), which was adopted from Iberian tribes during the Punic Wars. It was the main weapon of the legionary after throwing the pilum and could be used for both cutting and thrusting. 

The imperial Roman gladius had a leaf-shaped blade and was generally slightly shorter in length than the republican Gladii. In this early imperial period, the Gladius was still attached to the belt, but later it would hang from a bandolier over the shoulder. Servius uses a gladius of the Fulham type, a short variant with a broad blade.

The pugio was a dagger used by legionaries and non-commissioned officers of the Roman army during the imperial period as a last weapon to defend themselves. Like the gladius, the pugio had a leaf-shaped blade and was attached to the belt.