Roman cavalry helmets

Until the first century BC, the Roman cavalry – like the infantry – consisted mainly of Roman citizens. These soldiers came from the so-called ordo equester, the equestrian order, and had to meet certain wealth requirements. They provided their own equipment and were only temporarily called up, as they had to maintain their own farm or land outside of their military service. Therefore, the conscription was limited in duration, mainly due to the agricultural obligations of the soldiers.

Cavalrymen at this time wore helmets of Italic-Etruscan origin, such as Italic-Etruscan rim helmets of the Negau type. These were used by the cavalry even into the late Republican period. Numerous images and coin depictions from the 2nd and 1st century BC still show Roman cavalrymen with these traditional helmet types. Although archaeological finds of such helmets in Italy are absent after the 4th century BC, this says little about their actual use, given the general scarcity of preserved material from this period. In the Alpine region, however, the use of the Negau helmet has been archaeologically confirmed, even into the 1st century BC.

In addition, mainly the aristocrats in the Roman army were increasingly influenced by Greek and later Hellenistic styles from the 5th century BC onwards. Both the Roman cavalry and heavy infantry made extensive use of the typical hoplite armor. It is possible that Roman cavalrymen around this time dismounted during combat to fight as a form of elite warriors. 

The Chalcidian and Attic helmets were derived from the Corinthian helmet, but left the face free and were equipped with narrow, usually movable cheek plates. They were often crowned with a large helmet crest in Greek style. Some helmets were also adorned with plumes or feathers, which were inserted into holders – a phenomenon described by Polybius for the infantry, and also visible on helmets of South Italian cavalrymen.

The Athenian military expert Xenophon specifically recommended the Boeotian helmet for the cavalry, stating: "This type not only offers the best protection for everything above the breastplate, but also ensures good visibility." Alexander the Great followed this advice and provided his cavalry with this helmet. Both the Alexander sarcophagus and the Alexander mosaic depict cavalrymen of the ancient Macedonian army wearing this helmet. However, as a specialized cavalry helmet, the Boeotian helmet was not used as extensively as other ancient helmets, such as the Corinthian or Phrygian helmets.

The helmet was later also used by the successors of Alexander the Great, probably throughout the entire Hellenistic world, but is most frequently depicted on the coins of the Greco-Bactrian and Indo-Greek kingdoms, where rulers often wore a variant of the helmet. The helmet was also worn by the Roman cavalry during the Republican period. On the altar of Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus (a consul in 122 BC), a Roman cavalryman is depicted wearing the helmet, sometimes with a later, more conical top and a helmet crest of horse hair.

From the 2nd century BC, the military system began to change slowly. More and more professional soldiers emerged, with the state playing a larger role in providing armor. Especially towards the end of that century, when the Roman Republic had brought large parts of the Mediterranean under its control, a new type of army developed. In this army, Roman citizens served voluntarily for longer periods. This professionalization laid the basic for a military structure that was further developed under Emperor Augustus.

Under Augustus, the Roman army received a fixed organization. A clear distinction was made between the legionaries, who were Roman citizens, and the auxilia, the auxiliary troops that mainly consisted of non-Roman soldiers. These auxilia played a crucial role in the army: they supplemented the legions with specialized units, including the cavalry. According to historian Russell-Robinson (1975, p. 89), by the time of Augustus, nearly half of the Roman forces consisted of these non-Roman auxiliary troops.

Although the strength of the Roman army traditionally lay with the heavy infantry, the auxiliary troops, particularly the cavalry, gained an increasingly important supporting role. The cavalry was used for reconnaissance, flank attacks, and pursuing enemy troops. The equipment of these cavalrymen showed similarities with that of the infantry but was functionally adapted to fighting on horseback.

In the 1st century BC to the first half of the 1st century AD, cavalrymen wore armor similar to that of infantrymen. For instance, they wore the lorica hamata  on the body. The helmets used around this time were the Coolus (Hagenau) and Galea (Weisenau) type helmets. 

Representations from this period may also refer to the iron West-Celtic helmet types of the Agen/Giubiasco model. The scarce cavalry images from the imperial period before the reign of Claudius show on one hand the Attic type and on the other hand the Hagenau type (both in bronze) or the early Weisenau type (in iron), as seen on the reliefs of the Arch of Orange. Notably, the simple infantry helmet model of the type Montefortino is completely absent in such cavalry images.

These Roman cavalry helmets were developed from the Weisenau type infantry helmets and optimized for cavalry use. They consist of a helmet bowl, a mask, and cheek plates. The larva-mask only covers and imitates the front part of the face; the cheek plates can be additionally applied for full protection. The eponymous specimen was made of iron, covered with a silver plate and framed with bronze edges. The mask from Cologne was likely manufactured using the same technique. The only difference is that here a copper plate was used instead of a silver one. However, the specimen is too poorly preserved to demonstrate the surrounding bronze band. Larva masks themselves can also be made of a bronze alloy, such as the specimen from private ownership. 

The helmets and masks show neither an imitation of the ears nor a hairstyle. These masks are exclusively found in conjunction with Weisenau helmets and cheek plates with ear protection. Meanwhile, science agrees that these helmets are a variant of the Weisenau type with a removable mask. This could be removed from the helmet during battles and reattached during parades. The Guttmann collection housed a specimen with a repoussé-decorated helmet bowl, which in shape is related to the Weiler/Koblenz-Bubenheim type, but without hollows and without the depiction of a hairstyle.

The most well-known classification of Roman helmets is that of Russel Robinson. In the 1980s, Robinson conducted extensive research into archaeological finds, reliefs, and depictions of Roman helmets. Nowadays, however, his classification is slightly outdated, and new scientific research has led to new perspectives. Nevertheless, his classification provides a guideline for documenting all developments in Roman helmets in a very precise manner. Therefore, we use both the continental typology and that of Russell Robinson, indicating which conclusions of Robinson are now considered differently. 

On the other hand, there is a more geographically oriented classification – the so-called continental typology – which is based on find locations and the regional origin of characteristic helmet shapes.

This helmet type from the first century AD is, as mentioned earlier, comparable to the continental Weiler type. Examples have been found in Newstead (Scotland) and Northwich (Cheshire). The helmet has a semi-circular shape with cutouts at the ears and extends deeply at the back to a small, flange-shaped neck protector.

Russell-Robinson suggests that these helmets were likely made as a simple iron bowl, then covered with bronze or silver. This gave them the impression of hair or other decorations in relief (Russell-Robinson, 1975, 89, 95). When he wrote his report, the Northwich specimen was still undergoing conservation, which meant the details were not yet clearly visible.

Later it turned out that this helmet is decorated with a simple, stylized hair ornament applied in relief on the iron basic. The undecorated area above the eyebrow suggests that there may have been a wide, decorative eyebrow band for reinforcement. The cheek pieces appear similar to the type B described by Russell-Robinson.

This helmet resembles the type A, but has a deeper and sloping neck guard. Russell-Robinson mentions only one known specimen of this type, found in Witcham Gravel, Ely from 50-75 AD.

The helmet bowl is made of iron, with an outer covering consisting of four parts. The crown and neck guard were covered with white metal or silver. A wide, two-part band of yellow bronze or brass ran across the forehead and back of the head, decorated with mother-of-pearl and semicircular motifs of stamped, raised dots. On the sides were ear protectors that covered the joints, giving a two-tone effect (Russell-Robinson, 1975, 95).

Four large, round knobs—similar to old-fashioned bicycle bells—covered the rivets that fastened the forehead and back headband at the front, back, and above each ear. On the neck guard were three more such knobs. The cheek plates were made of bronze, fully enclosed, with stylized, embossed ear decorations. They were lightly serrated around the eye and mouth, but had no throat edge.

The helmet now lacks a standard for the helmet crest, although a double row of rivet points over the crown from front to back suggests that there was probably a non-removable helmet crest that was lost before the find (Russell-Robinson, 1975, 95).

Today, the Niederbieber type is considered a helmet used by both infantry and cavalry. The helmet is named after originals found in the Niederbieber fort in Germany. Similar helmets are depicted on tombstones of foot soldiers from Noricum. The helmet was developed from the preceding galea (Weisenau) helmets. It extended less far in the neck and ended in a shorter neck guard. The cheek plates enclosed the entire sides of the face and came together at the bottom. This type of helmet is equipped with a wide eyebrow guard that provided extra protection against downward strikes. 

The Niederbieber helmet type was classified by Russell-Robinson as an auxiliary troops helmet worn by the cavalry . However, this classification is incorrect. He distinguished several variants of this type, which can be considered subtypes, but it is important to emphasize that all these helmets had the same functionality and were probably used in the same period. It should be noted that archaeologists have only recovered a fraction of the hundreds of thousands of helmets used at that time.

The helmet was likely introduced in the second half of the 2nd century, around 180 AD. By the mid-3rd century, it was a standard helmet within the Roman army. This is evidenced by finds in Dura-Europos, a fortress city in Syria that was destroyed around 256 AD. The production of this helmet likely ended around 270, but it remained in use for a long time because it offered much protection – more than the helmets that came later.

Type C
This helmet is made from a single bronze plate and features a small, triangular, raised point at the top. The back of the helmet is straight and extends deeply below the neck, almost to the shoulders, ending in a slightly sloping edge. Notable are two embossed, parallel ribs that run from the neck edge upward, around the ear, over the forehead, and then down the other side (Russell-Robinson, 1975, 96).

Type D
This helmet has a similar shape to Type C, but is distinguished by added ear guards that flare upwards, curve around the ear, and extend to the neck guard. Additionally, there is a forehead band with a pointed lower edge. Instead of a raised point at the top, this helmet has a low helmet crest that runs from the crown to just above the neck guard. It is secured at both ends with large, conical rivets. The neck guard is deeper than in Type C and is finished with a bronze edge. The large, enclosed cheek pieces have a deep throat edge that extends to the neck guard, creating a broad, cohesive protection for the neck, shoulders, and throat.

Type E
The profile of this type closely resembles type D, but it is equipped with an additional flat, transverse reinforcement, in addition to the usual front-to-back reinforcement. The top of the helmet is enclosed with plates. Above the forehead band, a small pike is sometimes applied; in some specimens, this points upwards, in others downwards. Additionally, there are helmets with a carrying handle at the back of the neck guard. Parts of this type have been found in Newstead (dated to 140–158 AD; Russell-Robinson, 1975, 97) and in Dura Europos (dated to 255–256 AD; James 2004, 107).

Type F
This type closely resembles the Niederbieber type but is more simply executed. The helmet lacks added decorations and is more austere in shape. The ear flaps and the brow ridge are raised relative to the helmet bowl. Bullet-shaped rivets are used for attaching the pike and the cross reinforcements. Like its predecessor, the neck guard is finished with a bronze edge and a carrying handle is present (Russell-Robinson, 1975, 99).

Type G
This helmet is made of iron and differs from the other Niederbieber types. Russell-Robinson therefore suggested a different origin (Russell-Robinson, 1975, 99). The helmet is less deep at the back, bringing it closer to types A and B, although it dates from a later period (late second century AD). The best-preserved specimen comes from the Waal near Nijmegen, although this specimen largely lacks its neck guard and thus the profile might be closer to type B. The helmet is richly decorated with bronze ear flaps, an extensive brow band with transverse ribs, and a raised crown with embossed laurel and oak leaves (Russell-Robinson, 1975, 99).

Type H
This helmet dates from the late second to early third century AD and is again based on the Niederbieber model. It is made of iron, with applied bronze decorations. The neck guard is wide and dish-shaped. On top of the helmet is a large, hollow bronze knob on a square, convex basic. This knob is modeled after the shape of a poppy seed and is perforated, likely to hold a helmet crest (Russell-Robinson, 1975, 100). Several specimens of this type are known. Some are simply executed, while others, such as the specimen from Heddernheim, are richly decorated with engraved panels above the eyebrows, around the ears, and at the back, with motifs such as feather-like scales and coiling snakes. Russell-Robinson suspected that these decorations reflect an Egyptian influence (Russell-Robinson, 1975, 100).

Type I
This type is a simple, deep helmet based on the Niederbieber model, with a wide, dish-shaped neck guard as in type H. Only one specimen is known, originating from Osterburken and dated to the mid-third century AD (Russell-Robinson, 1975, 104). The ear cutouts are large and formed into shallow ear protectors from the helmet bowl. The helmet has no brow band and the pointed pike is close to the edge. Since there are no attachment points for cheek pieces, Russell-Robinson suspected that this helmet used a connected type of cheek pieces—as seen in 'sport type H'—which were placed under the brow and secured with straps over the neck flange (Russell-Robinson, 1975, 100).

Russell-Robinson states that some luxurious Roman cavalry helmets were not made for actual warfare but rather have a sporting or parade character. These helmets are predominantly equipped with face masks and developed from the late 2nd century. However, the cavalry exercises in the Hippika Gymnasia, as described by Arrian (Ars Tactica), show that these helmets aimed for as realistic a simulation of the battlefield as possible. Ammianus and Heliodorus also indicate that such equipment was used functionally. Stephenson and Dixon (2003, p. 22) state that the Hippika Gymnasia were intended as a testing ground for real combat techniques and thus required a comparable level of visibility and control as on the battlefield. They further suggest that the impressive appearance of a fully masked cavalry unit had a positive effect on the morale of its own army while simultaneously intimidating the enemy. It is therefore unlikely that these luxurious helmets were used exclusively for sporting or parade activities. According to Stephenson and Dixon, some cavalry officers possessed both a practical helmet and a parade helmet. To support this argument, they cite a grave find from Nawa where both types of helmets were found together in one grave. 

Type A
The oldest known cavalry sports helmet, dated to the first century BC, originates from Semendria. This helmet is made from two parts and is considered by Russell-Robinson (1975, p. 112) as a rough prototype of the later masked helmets. The bowl is shallow and reaches just above the ears, with a mask that falls over the jaw. The face is depicted naturalistically, as opposed to the stylized features of later types. There are no ear protectors, but holes are made in the edge of the skull and jaw for the attachment of lining material.

Type B
Helmets of this type date from the late first and early second century AD. They feature a stylized, youthful male face, often with a richly decorated helmet bowl depicting scenes of battle, animals, or mythological figures. The mask is usually attached with a hook-and-slot mechanism and extends to the raised edge. Examples vary from rounded to pointed peaks on top of the bowl.

Type C
The helmets of this type, dating from the late first to third century AD, follow the Attic style with a richly decorated bowl featuring wavy hair. The mask again shows a stylized, youthful face, with locks of hair extending over the forehead and cheeks.

Type D
In this type, the mask is hinge-mounted to the helmet bowl, usually at the center of the forehead. The bowl represents a richly decorated helmet, sometimes with simulated cheek pieces. Masks typically show clean-shaven young male faces, although regional variants with mustaches or oriental features exist, such as the specimens from Tel Oum Hauran and Emesa.

Type E
Russell-Robinson groups helmets with feminine facial features under this type, possibly intended to represent Amazons. The distinction between male and female is not always clear, but some masks exhibit braided hairstyles or jewelry. Most masks have round bowls, often richly decorated with hair locks or relief figures. Some specimens, such as those from Straubing or Grafenhausen, differ significantly with their pointed top and oriental features. Although they visually differ clearly, Russell-Robinson still places them under type E due to the feminine characteristics. The recently discovered Crosby Garrett helmet shows similarities with this group.

Type F
These helmets consist of three parts: an Attic bowl, a T-shaped face part (with eyes, nose, and mouth), and the back part. The face panel is removable, secured with a swivel pin at the forehead. The faces are again male, and the bowl is tight-fitting, sometimes with a low crest (as in the specimen from Ostrov).

Type G
Also constructed in three parts, this type shows a high, curved crest with an integrated pointed top. The helmet is designed to resemble an archaic Corinthian helmet, complete with a small relief face on the top. The crest is often richly decorated, such as the specimen from Eisernes Thor on the Danube, which combines an eagle figure and standing feathers with snake motifs.

Type H
Dating from the third century AD, this type combines a variant of the Attic bowl with heavily decorated, connected cheek pieces that form an open face. The crest is integrated but less pronounced than in type G, and the eyebrow is flat, without Corinthian pike.

Type I
This helmet, known from a specimen from Guisborough, Yorkshire, shows great similarity to type H. The flattened brow band above the eyes forms three rounded peaks. A related specimen was found in the Saône near Chalon. Both date from the third century AD and feature relief decorations, including depictions of deities such as Mars and Minerva.

During the crisis of the third century, the Roman Empire fell into troubled times. Political chaos, economic problems, and external threats made it clear that the army needed to change. Emperor Gallienus (253–268) was the first to realize that the traditional, slow legions were no longer adequate. His reforms laid the basic for a mobile army.

Until then, the army was mainly active at the borders, but during the crisis, it also had to act against internal enemies, including rebellious generals and groups like the Bagaudae — armed peasants and bandits. The army thus assumed a role as domestic enforcer.

With the Constitutio Antoniniana of 212 AD, the distinction between legionaries and auxilia disappeared, as nearly all free inhabitants of the empire received citizenship rights.

The real military reforms began under Diocletian (284–305) and were completed by Constantine the Great (306–337). Their adjustments made the army effective again and laid the basic for the survival of the Empire. As the Empire had fallen into recession, it became increasingly important to reduce the ever-growing costs of the Roman army. Around this time, equipment from barbarian peoples was adopted and produced as cheaply as possible for the Roman army. 

The expansion of the cavalry was not limited to new separate units, but also changed the cavalry within the legions. Since Augustus, the legion cavalry consisted of 120 men (four turmae of 30 riders). Gallienus turned this into an ala miliaria (24 turmae of 30 riders, a total of 720 cavalrymen). Thus, cavalry became a much more important part of the army. The new cavalry units of Gallienus were the successors of the old auxilia riders. We know little about their organization, but we do know that they were all given the name vexillationes. From Gallienus onward, this word was no longer used for temporary detachments of legions: the vexillatio became the standard cavalry unit with different types of riders. The helmets also changed significantly. Although it can be expected that old equipment must have remained in use for a long period. 

The Late Roman ridge helmet was worn by both infantry and cavalry units, although some variants, such as the Intercisa-type with ear openings, were probably used more by infantry. Their helmet bowl consists of different segments joined together with bands. In the middle of the helmet bowl, there is a distinctive steel ridge that resembles a helmet crest. These new helmets were strongly influenced by helmets from the Sassanid Empire, with whom Rome was at war around this time. An early example is a helmet from Dura Europos, probably worn by a Sassanid warrior. The oldest known ridge helmet is the specimen from Richborough, dated around 280 AD.

Ridge helmets first appeared on coins of Emperor Constantine the Great and were presumably in use between 270 and 300 AD. They were worn by both infantry and cavalry. The Berkasovo-type, often richly decorated, was possibly worn mainly by cavalry. However, artworks from that time show both types in use by different troops. Ridge helmets remained in use until the early 5th century, with some late-dated finds like the Maas helmet (409–411) and a Hunnic grave find in Concești. The form even remained visible in later Byzantine depictions until the 12th century. These helmets were adopted by the Germanic peoples and used until the Vendel Period 500-800 AD. Well-known Germanic variants are the Sutton Hoo helmet and the Valsgärde helmets. 

The helmet bowl consisted of multiple parts fastened together with 'spangen'. There are two main types:

Bipartite helmets (Intercisa-type): consist of two halves, connected by a central ridge. They usually have small cheek pieces and no base ring around the edge.
Quadripartite helmets (Berkasovo-type): consist of four parts, with a reinforcement band between side plates and a base ring. These helmets often feature large cheek pieces and sometimes a nose guard.

In all types, cheek pieces were attached with a lining, and the neck guard with leather straps, some of which buckles have been preserved.

Many ridge helmets are richly decorated. Some have a silver or gilded outer layer, applied by specialized craftsmen (barbaricarii). The amount of silver or gold was often adjusted to the rank of the wearer and sometimes inscribed on the helmet. The helmet from Deurne, for example, contained almost 370 grams of silver. Other helmets, such as the Berkasovo-I specimen, are adorned with glass gemstones. Emperors like Constantine I and Valentinian I even owned gold helmets inlaid with gemstones. In some cases, only the precious metal cladding has survived; the iron interior has decayed. Some helmets had an iron or loose crest on the ridge, as evidenced by finds in Intercisa, Augst, and other locations.

The Spangenhelm is a helmet type of Sarmatian origin, constructed from metal strips and plates usually arranged in a conical structure ending in a point. Although this design was somewhat more vulnerable to damage, especially at the seams, it offered the advantage of being simpler to manufacture and faster to repair than bipartite ridge helmets. By the 6th century AD, this helmet construction was one of the most popular in Europe.

Helmets with a banded and segmented bowl shape appear early near the Roman border. They can be seen on frescoess from Crimea (1st century AD) and on Trajan's Column (2nd century), where they are depicted as captured barbarian equipment. Roman soldiers with this type of helmet are first depicted on the Arch of Galerius (3rd century). Some even claim they can be recognized on the Adamclisi metope reliefs, although that is a matter of debate.

From this, it is often concluded that the later Spangen helmets were part of a parallel helmet tradition that developed simultaneously with the more rounded ridge helmets. The Romans may have adopted this helmet type through contact with barbarian peoples along the Danube or from Eastern Europe, or via Persian (Sassanid) examples. This theory is supported by finds of Spangen helmets in Egypt, including a specimen currently in the National Museum of Antiquities in Leiden, and by the persistence of this helmet design in Persian and Sassanid iconography. Since spangen helmets were often cheaper than ridge helmets, it is likely that they were worn by a larger portion of the Late Roman army.

The tradition of crest helmets and spangen helmets continued in the early Middle Ages, with Germanic and Iranian peoples continuing to use these helmets. The best-known examples of this are the Anglo-Saxon Sutton Hoo helmet, the Valsgärde helmets, and the Coppergate helmet. Most early medieval helmets, however, were spangen helmets, with the Viking helmet from the cremation grave of Gjermundbu being perhaps the most famous. It was only in the 12th century that they began to make the helmet bowl from a single piece again, which naturally made the helmet more expensive but much sturdier. The first nasal helmets can be seen on the Bayeux Tapestry.