Introduction: Hellenistic Greece

The Hellenistic period encompasses the time in Greek history after the classical antiquity, between the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC and the death of Cleopatra VII in 30 BC. This period ended with the rise of the Roman Empire, marked by the Battle of Actium in 31 BC and the Roman conquest of Ptolemaic Egypt in 30 BC, which eliminated the last major Hellenistic kingdom.

The name "Hellenistic" comes from the ancient Greek word Hellas, the name for Greece. The distinction with "Hellenic" is important: "Hellenic" specifically refers to Greece itself, while "Hellenistic" pertains to the areas that came under strong Greek influence after the conquests of Alexander the Great, especially in the Middle East.

Epirus was a kingdom in the northwest of Greece, located in the western Balkans. It was ruled by the Molossian Aeacidae dynasty and was an ally of Macedonia, especially under King Philip II and his son Alexander the Great.

In 281 BC, Pyrrhus, the king of Epirus, decided to invade Southern Italy and assist the city-state of Tarentum. Pyrrhus achieved victories over the Romans in the Battles of Heraclea and Asculum. However, the losses of his army were so great that he was forced to withdraw. These costly victories gave the expression "Pyrrhic victory" its name, meaning that the cost of the victory was too high. Pyrrhus then went to Sicily but did not succeed there. Eventually, he returned to Italy. After his defeat in the Battle of Beneventum in 275 BC, he lost all his possessions in Italy and returned to Epirus.

After his defeat in Italy, Pyrrhus turned his attention to Macedonia. In 275 BC, he declared war against Macedonia, defeated King Antigonus II Gonatas, and briefly ruled over Macedonia and Thessaly until 272 BC. He then invaded southern Greece but was killed in the Battle of Argos in 272 BC. His death marked the end of Epirus' time as a major power.

After Pyrrhus' death, Epirus remained a minor power. In 233 BC, the royal family was deposed and the kingdom was transformed into a federal state, the Epirote League. This league was conquered by the Romans in the Third Macedonian War (171–168 BC), bringing Epirus under Roman control.

The Kingdom of Macedonia, ruled by the Antigonid dynasty, played a central role in the Hellenistic world. Antigonus II Gonatas strengthened his rule through military campaigns against Epirus, the Achaean League, and Athens in the Chremonidean War. However, his reign faced economic challenges: the mines of Pangaeum were less productive, and plundering by Gallic invaders devastated the countryside. Moreover, the migration of Macedonians to the east during Alexander's campaigns weakened the local population.

Philip V, one of the last great kings of Macedonia, attempted to unite Greece and resist Rome. His alliance with Hannibal of Carthage led to the First Macedonian War (212–205 BC). Ultimately, the defeat against Rome In the Second Macedonian War (198 BC), Macedonia came under Roman influence. The fall of the Antigonid dynasty occurred in 168 BC, when Philip's son Perseus was defeated in the Third Macedonian War.

Rhodes flourished during the Hellenistic period as a center of culture and trade. The city-state maintained independence thanks to a powerful fleet and diplomatic neutrality. The famous Colossus of Rhodes, one of the Seven Wonders of the World, was built after a successful defense against Demetrius Poliorcetes (305–304 BC).

Although Rhodes initially had close ties with Ptolemaic Egypt, it later became an ally of Rome in their struggle against the Seleucids. This earned them rewards, such as land in Caria. Despite these successes, Rhodes eventually lost its independence and became a Roman province.

The west coast of the Balkans was inhabited by Illyrian tribes, known for their maritime piracy, especially under Queen Teuta (231–227 BC). Hellenization influenced many Illyrians, resulting in bilingualism and the adoption of Greek weapons and military traditions.

In Thrace, the Odrysian Kingdom played a prominent role. Thracians, such as the Agrianians, often served as mercenaries in Hellenistic armies, including that of Alexander the Great. Hellenistic influences were clearly visible in the language, clothing, and customs of the Thracian nobility. The Odrysian Kingdom resisted invasions, such as those from the Celtic Kingdom of Tylis, which was destroyed in 212 BC.

From 800 BC, the Greeks began establishing colonies in Southern Italy and the southeast of Sicily, an area that became known as Magna Graecia. By 400 BC, Syracuse was the most powerful city-state in Sicily. Agathocles of Syracuse played a major role in this. He conquered the city in 317 BC, waged war against Carthage, and even launched a military campaign in North Africa, attacking Tunis. He crowned himself king, like other rulers in the Greek world, and attempted to extend his power to Southern Italy, but without success.

On the Mediterranean coast of France, the Greeks founded trading colonies, of which Massalia (modern-day Marseille) was the most important. By 400 BC, Massalia was a thriving trading city with approximately 6,000 inhabitants. The influence of the Greeks was noticeable throughout the region: Celtic coins adopted Greek designs and even Greek letters. Massalia also served as a center of education, where local tribes learned Greek. Although the city remained independent, it sided with Rome during conflicts and was eventually annexed by Julius Caesar in 49 BC.

Another important Greek colony was Emporion in Spain, where Greeks and the local Iberian population lived together. This city grew into an important trading center and supported Rome during the Punic Wars. Eventually, Emporion lost its independence and became fully integrated into Roman culture.

The Hellenistic kingdoms in Asia and Egypt were governed by a Greek elite, supported by armies and immigrants from Greece. Kings such as Ptolemy II in Egypt promoted art, literature, and science. Alexandria became a center of knowledge, with the famous Library of Alexandria. However, the Ptolemies often fought with the Seleucids over territories such as Coele-Syria.

Egypt remained under Greek influence until the Roman conquest in 30 BC. Cleopatra VII, the last Ptolemaic ruler, is especially known for her role in Roman politics. After her death, Greek culture persisted in Egypt, even under Roman and Byzantine rule.

The Seleucid Empire extended over large parts of Asia but faced internal and external threats. Antiochus III, one of the greatest Seleucid rulers, reconquered lost territories and defeated Egypt in the Syrian Wars. Nevertheless, the Seleucids were ultimately defeated by Rome, and their empire disintegrated under pressure from rival powers such as the Parthians and Armenia.

Pergamum was an important center of culture and science. King Attalus I defeated the Gauls and made his kingdom independent. His successors founded the famous Library of Pergamum, second in fame only to that of Alexandria, and built monuments such as the Pergamum Altar. In 133 BC, Pergamum was handed over to Rome.

Parthia and Armenia were regions where Greek influence remained noticeable, even after the rise of new empires. Parthia blended Greek and Iranian traditions, while Armenia, under rulers such as Tigranes the Great, built many cities with Greek features. Despite their local distinctiveness, these regions were strongly influenced by Greek culture, as seen in their s, art, and religious practices.

The Indo-Greek kingdoms emerged after the fragmentation of the Greco-Bactrian empire, which led to their isolated position. Many of their kings are chiefly known through the coins that bear their names. Around 180 BC, Apollodotus I founded the first independent Indo-Greek kingdom in Gandhara and West Punjab after the death of King Demetrius.

Menander I, one of the most renowned kings, reigned from approximately 165 to 130 BC. He converted to Buddhism and is known in Buddhist texts as "Milinda." After his death, the kingdom became divided, leading to a gradual decline. Around 70 BC, the Greeks lost their western territories due to invasions by nomadic tribes, the same that had conquered the Bactrian empire. Eventually, the Indo-Scythians conquered the kingdom, which held out in West Punjab until about 10 AD.

The Kushans, who later ruled the region, adopted many Greek traditions, such as Greco-Buddhism, the Greek language, script, and artistic styles. Greek influence was especially visible in Gandhara, where Buddha statues were often depicted under the protection of Herakles. In Indian texts, the Greeks are also praised for their knowledge and scientific contributions.

In 146 BC, Greek independence came to an end when the Romans defeated the Achaeans at Corinth. The city was destroyed, and Greece became a Roman protectorate. Only Athens and Sparta were exempt from taxes.

The last major Greek resistance against Rome came from King Mithridates of Pontus. In 88 BC, he initiated a revolt and conquered large parts of Asia Minor. Many Greek cities, including Athens, joined him. After years of wars, Mithridates was defeated in 65 BC by Pompey the Great.

After the devastations during the Roman civil wars, Greece officially became a Roman province called Achaea in 27 BC. Under Roman rule, cities like Athens, Corinth, and Thessaloniki flourished again.

In the Near East, the fall of the Seleucid Empire led to the Roman conquest of Syria by Pompey. The last chapter of the Hellenistic era unfolded in Egypt. After the defeat of Cleopatra VII and Mark Antony against Augustus at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC, Egypt was annexed. This marked the end of the Hellenistic kingdoms.

Alexandria remained an important center of knowledge and culture, with large libraries and philosophical schools. Cities like Pergamon, Rhodes, and Antioch were also prominent centers of knowledge. Pergamon had one of the largest libraries, and Rhodes was known for its diplomatic school.

The Greeks spread their culture by building temples, gymnasia, and theaters. Local elites often adopted Greek customs, but most ordinary people retained their own traditions. In some regionss, hybrid cultures emerged. For example, Greeks in Egypt adopted Egyptian customs from the 2nd century BC, while in the Indo-Greek kingdom, kings like Menander converted to Buddhism.

Hellenistic art had a significant influence on other cultures, from the Mediterranean to India. In literature, kings patronized poets who wrote works in their honor. In Alexandria and Pergamon, scholars collected and studied classical Greek texts. Poets such as Callimachus and Apollonius of Rhodes left a lasting mark on literature, with their influence even felt in the Latin poetry of Roman writers such as Virgil and Ovid.

During the Hellenistic period, various philosophical schools emerged that had a significant influence on the ruling class in Greece and Rome. Despite Athens having lost its political freedom, the city remained an important center of philosophical thought. The philosophers of this time sought ways to achieve happiness and inner peace, even in difficult times. They pursued goals such as inner tranquility, independence, and freedom from suffering. This desire for a happy and free life was common to all Hellenistic philosophies.

The Epicureans and the Cynics rejected public offices and withdrew from society because they rejected the idea of the city-state. Epicurus emphasized atomism and the pursuit of painlessness, while the Cyrenaics and Epicureans considered pleasure as the highest good. Cynics like Diogenes of Sinope rejected possessions and social norms as unnatural and unimportant. The Stoics, led by Zeno of Citium, taught that a virtuous life is sufficient for happiness because it is in harmony with nature. Philosophers such as Aristotle and Plato remained influential, but there were also skeptical schools like Pyrrhonism and Academic Skepticism.

With the rise of Christianity and Islam, Hellenistic philosophy came to an end, but its influences remained visible in medieval philosophy, which was dominated by the three major Abrahamic traditions: Jewish, Christian, and Islamic philosophy.

In the Hellenistic period, military leaders increasingly made use of Greek mercenaries and non-Greek soldiers from regions such as Thrace, Galatia, Egypt, and Iran. Various ethnic groups, known for their combat techniques, were highly valued, such as the Tarantine cavalry and the Cretan archers. New weapons and troop formations were developed, such as the Thureophoroi and Thorakitai, who fought with oval shields and javelins.

The use of war elephants also became popular. Seleucus, for example, received elephants from the Maurya Empire and used them successfully in the Battle of Ipsus. Hellenistic warships became larger and stronger, such as the Quadrireme and Quinquereme. The Ptolemaic Tessarakonteres was even the largest ship ever built in antiquity. New siege machines were developed, such as the torsion-spring catapult and the Polybolos, a repeating ballista. Demetrius Poliorcetes was famous for his enormous siege machines, including the Helepolis, a 160-ton tower he used in the siege of Rhodes.

In the scientific field, significant advances were also made. Astronomers such as Aristarchus of Samos calculated the distances between the earth, the sun, and the moon and developed the heliocentric theory. In mechanics, Ctesibius studied the use of compressed air, while Hero of Alexandria designed a type of cannon.

Medicine also made significant strides, especially within the Hippocratic tradition. Physicians like Herophilos and Erasistratus performed dissections and provided detailed descriptions of organs and the nervous system. Botany was further developed by Theophrastus, who classified plants, and Crateuas, who described the use of plants in medicine.

One of the most impressive technological achievements of the Hellenistic period was the Antikythera mechanism, an analog computer that calculated the movements of celestial bodies. Such devices were not developed again until the 10th century, when the Persian scholar Al-Biruni described a similar solar meter. Other technological innovations included the Archimedes screw, the water mill, the water organ, and the piston pump.

In early interpretations, the science of the Hellenistic period was often considered less important, but recent studies indicate that the scientific method was born during this time. It was later forgotten but rediscovered during the Renaissance.

In addition to science and technology, public events were also organized, often for the entertainment of both men and women. These events, such as displays of exotic animals, were intended to showcase the wealth of the rulers. Athletic festivals became more important, and these traditions continued in the Roman Empire.