Introduction: Hoplites

Hoplites were citizen-soldiers of ancient Greek city-states who primarily fought with spears and shields. In this blog, we introduce different types of hoplites that dominated the classical world through the centuries. Many famous personalities, philosophers, artists, and poets from ancient Greece fought as hoplites.

The phalanx, the formation in which hoplites fought, was probably an Egyptian or Mesopotamian invention that was adopted by the Greek city-states around the 7th or 6th century BC, also leading to the emergence of the 'hoplites' themselves. The characteristically large round shield they used, the aspis , may have originated at the same time. The development from individualistic warfare to a cooperative phalanx with consistent equipment may have taken hundreds of years; likely, these Greek shield walls were not fully consistent until the 5th century BC. The bond between hoplites in the phalanx was very close; neighbors, friends, and family used their large shields to protect not only themselves but also each other. A recent archaeological discovery on the Greek island of Paros even shows that from the 8th century BC, comrades-in-arms were buried together in a polyandrion (common grave of male warriors). 

The Greek military culture from which the hoplite emerged was much older than the Greeks themselves. They had inherited it from the Mycenaean culture from the bronze Age, which, like the Celts, Germans, and most other European peoples, originated from the Proto-Indo-European steppe herders. 

Warfare in these societies was a semi-religious affair where warriors and hoplites demonstrated heroism to enrich their own tribe and impoverish the enemy (for example, by stealing cattle). Thus, a 'feast economy' was maintained, where heroic individual achievements were celebrated with large feasts and epic poems. Part of the war booty was offered to the gods to restore the cosmic order among people and with higher powers. However, this form of warfare had a major problem; it emphasized individual achievements and heroism, which made large-scale warfare impossible. To make warriors function as an army, a shift had to be made from the individual to the military unit as a whole. The Greek phalanx was a solution to this. The Proto-Indo-European koryos ritual is an important expression of this. 

The first use of the term phalanx appears in the 8th century BC, in the work of the famous Greek poet Homer. He used the term to distinguish formation-based combat from the individual duels that often appear in his poems. 

The phalanx as we know it was only adopted in the 7th or 6th century BC from the Egyptians or Mesopotamians. This new form of warfare forced Greek hoplites to cooperate as a single block. The warriors who fought fully armored in the shield wall were the hoplites.

Hoplites formed the majority of ancient Greek armies. They were primarily citizen-soldiers with legal personality, comparable to the warrior class that emerged among other Indo-European peoples. The hoplites came from the same class of the population and knew each other well. They formed a close community both within and outside the phalanx. Hoplites were mainly farmers, but also craftsmen and philosophers. They had to finance their own armor, such as a shield, helmet, linothorax and spear. Wealthier citizens could even purchase a bronze cuirass to protect their torso. About one-third to half of the healthy adult male population was part of this warrior class. Because they were not full-time soldiers, most hoplites lacked sufficient military training to fight effectively in lines. Some states maintained a small elite professional unit, known as the epilektoi or logades ('chosen ones') because they were selected from the ordinary hoplites to engage full-time in martial arts. This practice existed, among other places, in Athens, Sparta, Argos, Thebes, and Syracuse,

All hoplites were expected to participate in a military campaign when summoned by state leaders. The Lacedaemonian citizens of Sparta were renowned for their lifelong combat training and military prowess, while their greatest opponents, the Athenians, engaged in other work in their daily lives and were only exempted from service after the age of 60. The fact that hoplites from most city-states, like in Athens, performed their soldiering as a secondary task inevitably reduced the potential duration of campaigns and often restricted the campaign season to a single summer.

Greek armies often marched directly to their target, and in some cases, the battlefield was agreed upon in advance. Battles were preferably fought on flat ground, and hoplites preferred to fight with high terrain on both sides of the phalanx to prevent the formation from being flanked. For example, at the Battle of Thermopylae, where the Spartan king Leonidas specifically chose a narrow coastal pass to establish the Greek position against the vast Persian army. The Greeks, vastly outnumbered, held off the Persians for 2 days until their line was broken through a ruse.

When Greeks fought against each other, their battles were meant to be decisive. These battles were short-lived and required a high degree of discipline. In the early classical period, cavalry was hardly used. Later, mounted warriors began to protect the flanks of the phalanx. They also pursued retreating troops or covered the retreat of their own army. Light infantry and javelin throwers were also deployed to protect the flanks and to carry out guerrilla actions. When city-states fought against each other, their armies were often equally sized, equally well-equipped, and used similar tactics. This equality made battles very bloody. To reduce the number of casualties inflicted by the enemy during battles, soldiers were positioned so that they stood shoulder to shoulder with their aspis.

During the battle, the order could be given to the phalanx to move forward, either in whole or in part, ranging from half to several steps; the famous othismos. At that moment, the phalanx used its massive weight to push back the enemy line, creating fear and panic among the enemy. During a battle, several attempts were often made to achieve this. Once the enemy line broke, chaos ensued, which often led to a massive retreat. The winning army sometimes pursued this with psiloi , peltasts, or light cavalry.

The aspis was very heavy, and if a hoplite fled, he was often forced to drop this cumbersome shield. By doing so, he disgraced himself, his family, and city-state; Spartan mothers even impressed upon their sons to return either with their shield, or on it. A deserter hoplite was labeled by his community as ripsaspis , or 'someone who threw his shield'.

Hoplites carried their shields on their left arm, to protect themselves and the soldier on the left. This meant that the men at the extreme right of the phalanx were only half-protected. In battle, enemy phalanxes would exploit this weakness by attempting to overlap the enemy's right flank. It also meant that a phalanx in battle tended to drift to the right (because hoplites tried to stay behind their neighbor's shield). The most experienced hoplites were often placed on the right side of the phalanx to counter these problems. 

The hoplites had a lot of discipline and were trained to be loyal and reliable. They had to trust their neighbors for mutual protection: a phalanx was only as strong as its weakest link. The effectiveness of the shield wall depended on how well the hoplites could maintain combat in this formation and the extent to which they could hold their position. According to Plutarch's Sayings of Spartans, "a man carried a shield for the sake of the whole line." The more disciplined and courageous the army, the greater the chance it would win. 

However important unity among the ranks was in the phalanx war, individual martial skills played a role in the battle. The shields of the hoplites were not always closed against each other. During many points of the battle, there were periods when the hoplites stood two to three steps apart to have room to use their swords against the enemy. Evidence of this is the selection of individual champions after each battle. This is most evident in Herodotus' account of the Battle of Thermopylae. "Although great bravery was shown by the entire corps of Spartans and Thespians, the man who proved himself the best was a Spartan officer named Dienekes." The brothers Alpheos and Maron were also honored by Herodotus for their prowess on the battlefield. This is just one example of an ancient historian attributing value to a few individual soldiers and to the individuality of phalanx warfare. Often, the heroism and prestige of the city-state were recognized, possibly a reason for the Spartans and Thespians to remain behind at Thermopylae.

The phalanx was successful in defeating the Persians when deployed by the Athenians in the Battle of Marathon in 490 BC during the First Greco-Persian War. The Persian archers and light troops who fought in the Battle of Marathon failed to break through the dense formation of heavily armed hoplites. The phalanx was also used by the Greeks in the Battle of Thermopylae in 480 BC and in the Battle of Plataea in 479 BC during the Second Greco-Persian War.

The Spartans are known for their extreme war culture. They developed a rectangular phalanx formation that could be 500 meters long to position the flanks as far as possible. Preferably, these formations were eight to ten men deep. From the rear, the psiloi threw projectiles at the enemy, while the front lines stabbed the enemy with their spears. The hoplites behind the first row gently pushed their comrades with their shields to keep them in the correct position.

The politics of the Greek city-states and those of Persia were closely intertwined. From the 5th century BC, Greek hoplites were used as mercenaries in virtually all Persian conflicts. This tradition continued until Alexander the Great conquered complete control over Persia in 330 BC. For the Persians, the Greek hoplites formed a mercenary army with a military specialization that the Persians themselves did not possess.

The armies of the Persian Empire primarily consisted of formidable cavalry, infantry fighting in loose formations, archers, and spearmen. Both the Greeks, Persians, and Indians shared a Proto-Indo-European ancestry. This resulted in cultural similarities both during the Persian wars and during Alexander the Great. These similarities made it easier for these peoples to understand each other's culture. They were not strangers to each other. They had been trading with each other for thousands of years. Their cultures shared different variants of the same dharmic religion and knew societies based on oath-bound reciprocity. At the same time, other differences between the two cultures were significant.

Each hoplite provided his own equipment. Only those who could afford such weapons fought as hoplites. As with the Roman army of the early republic, the middle classes formed the majority of the infantry. The equipment was not standardized, although there were trends in styles. The shield was decorated with family or clan emblems during the archaic period, although these were replaced by symbols or monograms of the city-states in later centuries. The equipment could be passed down within families, as it was expensive to produce. They were often adorned with the head of a Gorgon, a reference to the mythical shield of the supreme god Zeus. 

An army of hoplites consisted of heavy infantrymen. Their armor, also known as panoply, was sometimes made entirely of bronze for those who could afford it, and weighed nearly 32 kilograms. Linen armor, the linothorax, was more common because it was cost-effective and offered decent protection to the body covered by a shield. The average hoplite could not afford armor and typically wore only a shield, helmet and spear and perhaps a secondary weapon. The upper-class hoplites generally had a bronze cuirass, a bronze helmet with cheek plates, as well as greaves and other armors. Often the helmet was adorned with one, sometimes more crests of horse hair and/or bronze animal horns and ears. Helmets were often painted as well, which also protected them from weathering in areas close to the sea.

In contrast to hoplites, other infantrymen wore relatively light armor, reed shields, and were armed with shorter spears, javelins, and bows. The most well-known are the peltasts , lightly armed troops who wore no armor and were equipped with a light shield, javelins, and a short sword. 

As an exception to this, the Athenian general Iphicrates developed a new type of armor and weapons for his mercenary army, which included light linen armor, smaller shields, and longer spears. He armed his Peltasts with larger shields, helmets, and a longer spear, allowing them to defend themselves more easily against hoplites. With this new type of arrangement, he defeated a Spartan army in 392 BC. 

The primary offensive weapon used was a spear measuring 2.5–4.5 meters long and 2.5 centimeters in diameter, called a doru or dory. This was held with the right hand, while the left hand held the hoplite's shield. Soldiers typically held their spears underhand when approaching, but once in close contact with opponents, they held them overhand, ready to strike. 

Spear heads were usually leaf-shaped. The back of the spear had a point called a sauroter ("lizard killer"). This was used to set the spear into the ground (hence the name), but also as a secondary weapon if the shaft broke, or for the rear ranks to finish off fallen opponents as the phalanx advanced over them. Besides being used as a secondary weapon, the sauroter was also used to balance the spear, but not for throwing. 

It is a matter of debate among historians whether the hoplite used the spear overhand or underhand. Held underhand, the thrusts would have been less powerful but more controlled, and vice versa. The upward thrust is more easily deflected by armor due to the lesser leverage. An overhand movement would allow a more effective combination of the aspis and doru if the shield wall was broken, while the underhand movement would be more effective when the shield needed to be interlocked with those of one's neighbors in the battle line. Hoplites in the ranks behind the leader would almost certainly have made overhand thrusts. The rear ranks held their spears underhand and raised their shields at increasing angles. This was an effective defense against projectiles, deflecting their force.

Hoplites also carried a sword, usually a short sword that the xiphos was mentioned, but later also longer and heavier types. The short sword was a secondary weapon, used when their spears were broken or lost, or when the formation broke. The xiphos typically had a blade about 60 centimeters long; however, those used by the Spartans were often only 30-45 centimeters long. This very short xiphos would be highly advantageous in the press that occurred when two rows of hoplites met, able to be thrust through gaps in the shield wall into the unprotected groin or throat of an enemy, while there was no room to thrust a longer sword. Such a small weapon would be particularly useful after many hoplites during the Peloponnesian War began to abandon heavy armor. Hoplites could alternatively carry the kopis, a heavy 'cutlass' with a forward-curving blade.

The rise and fall of the Greek hoplites largely coincides with that of the Greek city-states. Hoplites reached their peak during the classical period, in the 5th and 4th centuries BC.

The Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC) was of a scale unknown in Greece. City-states under Sparta and Athens formed alliances involving significant resources. Mercenaries were used, and the army became more diverse.

Hoplite wars changed. There were three major battles in the Peloponnesian War, and none proved decisive. Instead, the role of the navy, siege engines, and attrition tactics became more important.

In the Persian War, hoplites faced large numbers of archers and javelin throwers who caused significant damage to formations. As a result, other troops such as peltasts and cavalrymen became more important. Line formations like the phalanx became more maneuverable. Consequently, hoplites began to wear less armor, carry shorter swords, and generally adapt for greater mobility. This led to the development of the ekdromos, the light hoplite.

Over the centuries, different city-states and cultures developed various variants. In some armies, including that of the Roman Republic, hoplites remained in use until after the 2nd century BC. 

The term ekdromos can in fact be used for any hoplite trained to fight in loose formations in addition to the fixed phalanx formation. Within the shield wall, they functioned as regular hoplites, but when ordered, they left this formation and attacked the enemy in loose order. Around the 4th century BC, these light hoplites were increasingly deployed against archers and javelin throwers who were barely armed for hand-to-hand combat. They could also be used to quickly seize strategically important positions or to pursue retreating enemies.

The Macedonian phalanx was a unique type of phalanx developed by Philip the Second. Each hoplite (phalangis) in this formation carried a sarissa, a 4-6 meter long pike.  At the front, this type of phalanx was an impenetrable forest of spears. The men in the rear rows held their spears at a 45-degree angle. This served as a tactic to ward off arrows and other projectiles. These hoplites carried smaller, flatter shields than the traditional Greek aspis. These shields, which were approximately 60 cm in diameter and weighed about 5.4 kg, were also called telamon . The telamon was made of wood covered with bronze. It was worn around the neck, allowing soldiers to have both hands free to handle the long spear, the sarissa.

It was famously commanded by Philip's son Alexander the Great during his conquest of the Achaemenid Empire between 334 and 323 BC. The Macedonian phalanx model then spread throughout the Hellenistic world, where it became the standard battle formation for field engagements. During the Macedonian wars against the Roman Republic (214-148 BC), the phalanx seemed outdated compared to the more maneuverable Roman legions, although they suffered significant losses.

An intact phalanx was extremely effective at keeping enemies at bay, although large weapons were of little use at close range. In a well-functioning phalanx, the weapons of the first five rows protruded beyond the front of the formation.

During the time of Herodotus (circa 426 BC), the word hypaspist had the meaning of a soldier of high status. The historian indicated that the word possibly had Homeric and heroic connotations. Philip II of Macedonia likely used it for an elite unit within his army that also functioned as his bodyguard, known as the Hypaspistai.

The early hypaspists were presumably equipped in the style of hoplites, with the shield (aspis), a spear (dory), a linothorax as armor, a hoplite helmet, greaves, and a sword such as a xiphos or kopis. Their equipment was probably more richly decorated than that of the regular soldiers in the main line. 

In battle, the hypaspists were often positioned on the flanks of the Macedonian phalanx. Their own flanks were protected by light infantry and cavalry. The main task of these elite troops was to protect the vulnerable flanks of the large, less maneuverable pike phalanx. The phalanges, armed with their long sarissass, were particularly effective in frontal attacks, but their limited mobility made them vulnerable to attacks on the sides. The hypaspists therefore played a crucial role in the tactics of Philip II, as they complemented the invulnerability of the Macedonian phalanx from the front by securing the flanks.

In the Hellenistic period, hypaspists continued to exist, albeit in different roles and under different names. In the kingdoms of the Seleucids, Ptolemies, and Antigonids, they were primarily used as royal bodyguards and military administrators. The historian Polybius, for example, mentions a hypaspist sent by Philip V of Macedonia in 197 BC, after his defeat at the Battle of Cynoscephalae, to Larissa to destroy state documents.

The original combat unit of the hypaspists seems to have continued in Macedonia as a corps of peltasts. This unit had almost the same status, equipment, and role as the hypaspists under Philip II. Originally, this corps consisted of 3,000 men, but during the Third Macedonian War, this number grew to 5,000. Within this formation, there was also an elite unit, the Agema.

Hoplite warfare, a fighting style developed by the Greek city-states, had a significant influence on various nations in the Mediterranean region. The Italian peninsula, which came into contact with Greek colonies, adopted these military tactics and applied them until the early 3rd century BC. Both the Etruscans and the early Roman army used this method and tactics. Although the scutum infantry had existed for centuries, some groups combined hoplite warfare with their own battlefield traditions.

The Romans eventually adapted their military organization and developed a more flexible and maneuverable formation, better suited to the varied terrain of the Apennines. Instead of the long doru, Roman soldiers now used heavy javelins (pilae), while only the triarii – the heavily armed veterans – continued to wield a long spear (hasta) as their primary weapon. The triarii still fought in a traditional phalanx formation.

Although the maneuverable setup became dominant, hoplite warfare persisted in certain parts of Italy. For example, mercenaries serving under Pyrrhus of Epirus or Hannibal (such as the Lucanians) continued to operate as hoplites.

In its history, ancient Carthage armed its troops in the style of Greek hoplites, with elite units such as the Sacred Band of Carthage. Greek hoplite mercenaries were also widely employed in foreign armies, including those of Carthage and the Achaemenid Empire. It is believed that their style and tactics may have inspired the formation of the cardaces in the Persian army.

In the 4th century BC, some hoplites served under the Illyrian king Bardylis. The Illyrians adopted many weapons and tactics from the Greeks. Similarly, the Diadochi, the successors of Alexander the Great, introduced the Greek phalanx into their realms. Although their armies mainly consisted of Greek citizens or mercenaries, they also armed and trained local indigenous troops according to Greek or Macedonian military standards.

A good example of this is the Ptolemaic army, which armed and trained local Egyptian soldiers, known as the machimoi, as hoplites or in the style of the Macedonian phalanx. Hoplite warfare continued in this manner and served as a fundamental source of inspiration for the military traditions of various civilizations in the ancient world.

The triarii formed one of the most important elements of the early Roman maneuverable legions during the early Roman Republic (509 BC - 107 BC). They were known as the oldest and wealthiest men within the army, which enabled them to acquire high-quality equipment.

The Triarii wore heavy metal armor and used large shields for protection. They were equipped with long spears (hasta) and were known as elite soldiers within the legion. Their position on the battlefield was in the third and final battle line, where they played a decisive role in battles.

During the Camillan era, the Triarii fought in a shallow phalanx formation, supported by light infantrymen. Their heavy armor and formation gave them great fighting power, but they were usually deployed only when other parts of the army failed.

In most battles, the Triarii were hardly used, as the lighter troops were often already able to defeat the enemy before their help was needed. However, they were considered a decisive force, specially deployed when the battle reached a critical turning point. This strategic use gave rise to the Roman saying: ‘res ad triarios venit’ (it comes down to the triarii). This implied that the situation was serious and had to be carried through to the bitter end. The Triarii thus symbolized not only the strength of Roman military traditions but also the crucial role of well-trained, experienced soldiers in the success of the Roman Republic on the battlefield.

In the Hellenistic period, the Greek armies mainly continued to use the Macedonian phalanx for their formations. However, this formation was not applied everywhere in Greece; some armies on the mainland retained traditional hoplite warfare. In addition to the classical hoplites, Hellenistic nations developed two new types of hoplites: the thureophoroi and the thorakitai.

The thureophoroi emerged when the Greeks adopted the Galatian thureos. This was a shield with an oval shape and had a flat profile, which influenced both the Romans and the Greeks. The thureophoroi were armed with a long thrusting spear, a short sword, and, if necessary, javelins. These troops formed a light infantry that was faster and more flexible than the traditional hoplites, yet still had considerable striking power.

The thorakitai were a heavier variant of the thureophoroi. They were heavily armored, as the name suggests, and usually wore chainmail shirt. This made them more robust than the lighter thureophoroi, making them more effective in battles where more protection was needed.

Both units, Thureophoroi and Thorakitai, were often used as a link between the light infantry and the heavy phalanx. They functioned as a kind of medium infantry, which made it possible to fill gaps in the phalanx formation or to protect the flanks, depending on the situation. These adjustments in army structure reflect the evolution of military strategies during the Hellenistic period, where flexibility and adaptability became increasingly important.

The Thyreophoroi were a type of infantry that was particularly common from the 3rd to the 1st century BC. They were characterized by the use of a large oval shield, the thureos, which played a significant role in their combat style. This shield had a metal strip boss in the center and a central spine, making it both robust and functional in combat.

The thureos-shield was likely an adapted version of a Celtic shield. It is believed that the Thracian and Illyrian infantry probably adopted this shield before it was used by the Greeks. However, it is suggested that the thureos was brought to Greece after the campaigns of Pyrrhus of Epirus in Italy, especially since his allies, who were Oscan-speaking peoples, as well as his Roman enemies, employed the use of the scutum shield. The thureos-shield thus exemplified cultural exchange and adaptation between the Greeks, Celts, Illyrians, and Thracians.

The Thyreophoroi functioned as medium infantry, fulfilling their role between the light infantry and the heavy hoplites or phalanxes. Their versatile equipment allowed them to protect the flanks of the phalanx and to fight in a more flexible formation when necessary. Their presence brought a balance between speed and strength in the Hellenistic armies.