Roman phalerae & rewards

According to the Greek historian Polybius, Roman soldiers who had behaved bravely in battle received public praise and reward. After a battle, the general would call a troop assembly, bringing forward the bravest men, naming their heroic deeds, and praising their past merits. Only then followed the awarding of military distinctions.

Roman military distinctions were not awarded posthumously; the distinctions that a soldier or unit had earned during their lifetime often proudly returned on sarcophagi or memorial stones.

Torc – a golden neck ring, symbol of loyalty and honor, this tradition was adopted from the Celts.

Armillae – gold bracelets, worn as a sign of loyalty and courage. This tradition may have been adopted from the Celts, but it may also have been derived from Latin or Etruscan traditions. 

Phalerae – gold, silver, or bronze discs, worn on the chest during parades.

Hasta pura – a ceremonial silver spear (without a point), awarded to those who wounded an enemy. The exact use remains unclear.

Miniature vexillum – a silver flag or standard, as a tribute.

Silver drinking cup – awarded to an infantryman who voluntarily killed an enemy outside regular combat and took his armor.

Decorations on horse harness – similar distinction for cavalrymen, awarded under the same circumstances. Some of these were attached to the horse harness.

These rewards were more than symbols: they were visible proof of personal courage and honor, recognized by the entire army. The Romans were a warrior culture with Indo-European origin. The tradition of war bands made way for more organized warfare during the Roman Republic. However, the tradition of individual military performance remained an important feature of their culture. Distinctions and triumphal processions must be viewed from this perspective. When Romans enlisted in the army, they swore an oath, sacramentum, pledging loyalty to Rome and the people of Rome. This tradition of oath-bound service can be traced back to the Proto-Indo-European tradition of the warrior class.

Perhaps the best-known insignia were the phalerae. These were a type of medals. Centurions and standard-bearers like the Aquilifer wore them on their chest, and they also adorned horse harnesses. Phalerae were round or oval metal discs with a diameter of about 5 to 10 cm.

Unlike modern individual distinctions, Roman phalerae were a set of medals awarded for bravery or upon reaching the rank of centurion or standard-bearer. Notably, according to archaeological sources, phalerae were not mandatory equipment for centurions , but rather a special distinction. They were made from precious metals, usually gold, silver or bronze, and were often richly decorated with embossed motifs. There also exists a rare type of phalerae with glass inlay. The Latin word phalerae also gave rise to the modern concept of “phaleristics,” the study of orders and decorations. Armillae (bracelets) could be attached to the phalerae as additional decoration.

Phalerae have their origins in the Ancient Greek cultural area. In ancient Greece, the word “phalaron” (Ancient Greek: φάλαρον) originally referred to a shiny metal plate that adorned the armour, the helmet, or the horse harness. Representations of horses with phalerae can be seen on many ancient Greek vases.

The Etruscans adopted this tradition from Greek colonists on the Apennine Peninsula and used the phalaron as a military distinction. In the 4th century BC, the Romans adopted this practice from the Etruscans, and since then, phalerae became a symbol of military rank.

Archaeological and iconographic findings confirm the widespread use of this type of decoration, not only among Roman soldiers but also among Ugric peoples, Sarmatians, and Persians during the Sassanid dynasty.

It is likely that the tradition of wearing phalerae was adopted from the Etruscans and other Italic cultures. Phalerae have already been found in Etruscan graves from the 7th century BC. It is unclear what the tradition of phalerae is based on. Notably, the Dacians and Celts also had a tradition of phalerae. It is possible that phalerae are derived from solar discs worn in various cultures during the European Bronze Age. Although the context of both early phalerae and bronze Age solar discs is hypothetical, scientists think these discs were related to the worship of the sun and the gods. 

Images of centurions with phalerae are the most common. These could consist of simple round discs without decoration, but also richly detailed scenes depicting myths, gods, emperors, or animals. According to reliefs, phalerae were awarded in sets of 3, 5, 7, 9, or 10 pieces.

In Germany, archaeologists discovered a complete set of 10 phalerae belonging to a centurion. One of them was shaped like a half-moon. This set was found in Fort Lauer and dates from the 1st century AD. The phalerae depict images of gods and lions, symbols of courage and strength.

The head of Medusa often appears on phalerae, continuing the Greek tradition that also depicted Medusa on hoplite-shields. Other common motifs include mythical creatures, such as sphinxes, and gods like Mars, Minerva, and Jupiter. Phalerae likely symbolized not only heroic deeds but also endowed them with a certain spirit. This tradition aligns with the veneration of the aquila, the legionary eagle, and can be linked to the Roman animistic worldview.

Phalerae were attached to leather straps, which were fastened on the back. Presumably, these straps were closed with buckles, which are clearly visible on phalerae featuring the image of Victoria (the personification of victory).

More than 70 glass phalerae have also been found, mostly made of dark blue glass. However, some historians and archaeologists do not consider these objects to be true phalerae. They usually depict human heads, often male, sometimes with children included. It is suspected that these figures represent emperors of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, their sons, and their spouses. Metal phalerae are usually found in sets, while glass phalerae are rarer and typically found individually.

Military armillae were modeled after the bracelets worn by the Celts. The tradition of using Celtic torcs (neck rings) and armillae as Roman military decorations began in 361 BC. Titus Manlius Torquatus (consul in 347 BC) defeated an impressively built Gallic chieftain in a duel. He then tore the bloodied torc from the neck of the dead enemy and placed it around his own neck as a trophy.

The Romans were initially impressed by the fierce appearance of the Gauls, whose elite warriors were “ lavishly adorned with gold necklaces and bracelets.” The torc was a symbol of power and prestige within Celtic culture. By taking the torc of the defeated enemy, Torquatus effectively appropriated his power, creating a powerful, visible symbol of Roman domination.

Over time, the torc and the armilla were adopted as official Roman awards for bravery and gained the significance of symbolic war trophies.