Introduction: Roman Legionaries

The legionary is the ultimate symbol of the Roman Empire, recognizable to the layperson by the helmet with helmet crest. In this blog, we delve deeper into the history of the legionary and the Roman legions.

These soldiers were responsible for conquering and defending the territories of ancient Rome, especially during the late Republic and early Empire. They worked alongside auxiliary troops such as auxilia and foederati. At their peak, Roman legionaries were considered the main fighting force of the Roman world. Commentators like Vegetius praised their combat prowess, even long after the classical Roman legionary had disappeared.

Roman legionaries were recruited from Roman citizens under the age of 45. Initially, most recruits came from Italy, but later more soldiers were enlisted from the provinces.

They served for 25 years, while originally soldiers served for only one campaign. The last five years of their service consisted of lighter duties. After their retirement, they often received a piece of land or money and frequently became influential members of society.

Almost nothing is known about the legions from the time of the Roman Kingdom, which possibly consisted of 1000 men per tribe of the three original Roman tribes. The first detailed description of a Roman army comes from Polybius, around 150 BC. His work is likely influenced by the organization of the army after Hannibal's defeat in the Punic Wars, about 50 years earlier.

During the Roman Republic, legions were only established in times of war. Usually, there were four legions, two per consul, although more legions were formed if necessary. Soldiers could not build a military career; their reward mainly consisted of spoils from the battlefield. Once the conflict was over, they returned to their civilian lives.

The military organization in the early Republic was heavily influenced by the Etruscans and the ancient Greek and Macedonian phalanx.

After a heavy defeat at the Battle of the Allia in 387 BC, the army underwent a reform known as the Camillan system. In this, soldiers were categorized based on basic of their social class, with the poorest forming the front lines. Later, this system was replaced by the Polybian system, which categorized soldiers based on basic of age and experience.

From the Second Samnite War, around 315 BC, the legions were organized into maniples, small units that together formed a flexible and effective battle formation. This structure divided the army into three lines:

1. Hastati: The youngest and least experienced soldiers.
2. Principes: Soldiers with more experience.
3. Triarii : Veterans who were only deployed in critical situations.

Besides the infantry, there were also velites (light infantry) and equites (cavalry), which were used for reconnaissance and flanking enemy troops.

The reforms of 'Gaius Marius', who served as consul in the 1st century BC, are often seen as the most significant changes in the composition and functioning of the Roman army.

Citizens without property could now also enlist in the army. This led to the creation of a semi-professional class of soldiers, motivated by land allocations. These soldiers became the clients of their generals, but not of the republic.

From the 19th century, scholars assumed that these reforms were implemented all at once and that Gaius Marius was responsible for them. This is now questioned. Indeed, military reforms were implemented, but this was only during the Social War (91-88 BC) and the subsequent civil wars in the second half of the 1st century BC.

During the reign of Augustus (27 BC–14 AD), the legions were made permanent and were given a fixed basic. Augustus reduced the number of legions from fifty to 28 and increased the number of auxiliary troops (auxilia) until they were as numerous as the legionaries. He also established the Praetorian Guard and a permanent fleet.

When Augustus seized power in 27 BC and established the Principate, he professionalized the legionary soldier and made him less dependent on his general. The service time was increased to 25 years and the pay was standardized. Augustus ensured that legionaries received a land allocation or a sum of money after their service, making them less dependent on their generals for rewards after campaigns. He also changed the oath so that soldiers swore allegiance to the emperor, not the general. In this way, Augustus ended the civil wars and created an army loyal to the emperor.

A standard legion had about 5,120 soldiers, with a comparable number of auxilia. This professional approach made the army extremely effective and a crucial pillar of the Roman Empire.

In the Late Empire, the number of legions grew, while their size decreased. New units, such as the legiones palatinae, consisting of about 1000 soldiers, were formed to be more flexible. This was important to respond to the constantly changing threats at the borders.

According to Vegetius, each legion possessed advanced siege weapons such as ballistae and onagers, which made them particularly strong in sieges and defensive operations.

From the reign of Emperor Septimius Severus, Roman legionaries gradually lost their dominant role. This was due to a decline in loyalty and discipline. Severus began to overwhelm his legionaries with gifts and pay raises, but this led to a decrease in their discipline.

Under Caracalla, the successor of Severus, all free men in the Roman Empire became Roman citizens, which eliminated the distinction between legionaries and auxilia. This led to recruits being drawn from various cultural backgrounds, further reducing the consistency of the Roman legionaries.

During the crisis of the 3rd century, a mobile army became necessary as threats emerged along the long borders of the Roman Empire. Cavalry became more important, leading to a decline in the role of heavy infantry.

Under Emperor Diocletian (284–305), the traditional legions, alae, and cohortes were divided into smaller units with new names. Under Constantine I (312–337), military units were classified into three ranks:

Palatini - Elite units in the imperial escort armies.

Comitatenses - High-quality mobile armies in border provinces.

Limitanei - Lower quality border guard units.

By the fourth century, the Roman infantry had lost much of the classical armor and used javelins instead of the traditional pilum.

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the legion system continued in the Eastern Roman Empire until the 7th century. Under Emperor Heraclius, it was replaced by the Themata system, which focused more on regional defense. Nonetheless, the Eastern Roman army retained many characteristics of the classical legion, such as discipline and strategic organization.

Although the legionary was primarily a warrior, he also performed other important tasks.

When the legionnaires entered newly conquered provinces, they helped to Romanize the indigenous population and contributed to the integration of the various regionss within the Roman Empire.

Since the Roman Empire had no professional police, legionnaires were used to maintain order and protect critical facilities. They also filled administrative roles, as the army was often deployed to collect taxes and settle legal disputes.

Legionnaires were also an important source of labor. They built much of the empire's infrastructure, such as roads, canals, bridges, and defensive works like forts and walls. Hadrian's Wall in Britain is a well-known example of Roman engineering, built by the three legions in that area.

The regular legionnaires were called 'milites' and were similar to the modern soldier. Within the legions, there were also specialist soldiers, the 'immunes', such as engineers, artillerymen, and medics, who were excused from heavy tasks and paid better than ordinary soldiers.

Most legionnaires were volunteers, but in times of crisis, conscription was also enforced. The profession of soldier was a respectable and valued job, with a fixed salary, good pension provisions, and legal benefits. This made the army attractive to many plebeian citizens. Even the poorest citizens could join the army, although the army also sought recruits with specific skills, such as blacksmiths or carpenters. In the later Republic, many recruits came from the provinces instead of Italy.

The training of a legionary began with the use of wooden swords and shields that were heavier than the real weapons, to build strength. During their training, the soldiers were prepared not only for battle but also for other skills, such as swimming and setting up camps. Discipline was of great importance, and soldiers were often severely punished for violations. This rigorous training ensured that the soldiers had no fear of battle, although the fear of severe punishments motivated them to perform well.

During the Pax Romana, an ordinary legionary received 225 denarii per year, which was increased to 300 denarii during the reign of Emperor Domitian. In times of crisis, emperors could also reward soldiers with extra gifts. Looting and spoils were also an important source of income for the legionnaires. After their service time, they often received land or a sum of money as a pension.

The diet of a legionary consisted mainly of wheat, which was eaten as bread or porridge. During campaigns, they made hardtack from the grain, which was long-lasting. Other rations included wine, vinegar, vegetables, salted meat, cheese, and oil. However, fruit was not provided, and soldiers often sought extra food through trade or plundering. The nutrition was generally nutritious and sufficient to keep the soldiers in good health.

The legionaries were also cared for in hospitals within the military fortifications. Doctors treated the wounded and sick, and the army camps were organized in such a way that diseases spread less quickly. Soldiers who were severely wounded could receive a medical discharge, which provided them with certain benefits, such as tax exemptions.

The legion was divided into cohorts of 480 men each. One cohort consisted of six centuries of 80 soldiers each. A century was divided into contubernia.

The Roman legionary fought alongside his own contubernium, which consisted of eight men who slept, ate, trained, and fought together. This created a strong bond between the men, which gave them courage in battle.

Officers, the optio’s, often stood behind the unit in battle and were tasked with preventing soldiers from fleeing. They used a staff to force fleeing soldiers back into formation.

Centurions’s, the leaders at the front, fought themselves and served as an example to their men. Rewards, such as the coveted corona civica for saving a comrade, were important motivations. But punishment was also common: soldiers who behaved cowardly were sometimes stoned, and in extreme cases, a unit was decimated, where one in ten soldiers was executed.

The signiferi, the bearers of the legion symbols, played a crucial role in maintaining morale and venerating the legion. The loss of such a symbol was a great disgrace for the legion, and therefore the signiferi served as a rallying point and as encouragers to continue the fight.

From 104 BC, the Roman legions used the aquila (eagle) as their standard symbol. This eagle was carried by an officer, the aquilifer. The loss of the aquila was considered an enormous disgrace and often led to the disbandment of the involved legion. This usually happened because a legion that could not reclaim its eagle in battle was so severely affected that it could no longer fight effectively.

In his Gallic War (Book IV, Paragraph 25), Julius Caesar describes an incident during his first invasion of Britain in 55 BC, illustrating the importance of the aquila. When Caesar's troops hesitated to leave their ships out of fear of the Britons, the aquilifer of the tenth legion jumped overboard. With the aquila in his hand, he went alone towards the enemy. His comrades, afraid of the disgrace of the loss, immediately jumped after him. This also encouraged the troops on the other ships to follow.

During the Empire, the legions developed a strong bond with their leader, the emperor himself. Each legion had an officer called the imaginifer, who carried a pike with an imago (image or sculpture) of the emperor in his role as pontifex maximus.

Each legion also had a vexillifer, who carried a vexillum or signum carried. This standard displayed the name and emblem of the legion and was unique to each unit. When subunits of a legion were detached from the main army to reinforce other units, they only carried the vexillum and not the aquila. These detached units were called vexillationes. As recognition for their service, officers sometimes received a miniature version of the vexillum on a silver base upon their retirement or transfer.

Civilians could also be honored for their assistance to the Roman legions. As a reward for exceptional services, they sometimes received a arrow without a point. This was considered a great honor and brought the recipient much prestige.

When a legionary was on the march in hostile territory, he carried full equipment, including a helmet (galea), a shield (scutum), weapons such as a short sword (gladius) and two spears (pilum and verutum), and body protection such as a breastplate (lorica segmentata). He also carried personal necessities, such as food and cooking equipment. During the reforms of Emperor Claudius in 41 AD, legions also received artillery, such as ballistae and carroballistae, for use in battles.

Before a major battle began, there was often maneuvering and negotiating for days. Soldiers received their meals and rest before the fight started. The commanders gave speeches to motivate the soldiers with promises of loot and wealth. Smaller skirmishes were preceded by light skirmishes, where cavalry and auxiliary troops probed the enemy.

The legionaries first threw their spear, which weakened the enemy, before attacking them with their swords. The scutum had a metal knob in the center, making the shield not only a defensive but also an offensive weapon. The gladius was designed for thrusting but could also be used for cutting. The discipline and use of these simple yet effective weapons made the legionary one of the best soldiers in the ancient world.

In the Late Roman Empire, there were three types of infantry: heavy, medium, and light. The heavy infantry consisted of comitatenses. The medium infantry was composed of auxilia (auxiliary soldiers), auxilia palatina, and peltasts. The light infantry was formed by psiloi. Units consisted of about 5,000 soldiers, of which 726 to 800 were cavalrymen. The size of the units often varied.

The comitatenses replaced the traditional Roman legionaries. They were units of field armies deployed throughout the Roman Empire as the backbone of the late Roman armies.

A regiment of comitatenses numbered 1,024 soldiers, while a legion consisted of 6,000 to 7,000 legionaries. Some comitatenses were lightly armed, while others were more heavily armed.

In battle, the army was often divided into three or four divisions. The soldiers sometimes used a double phalanx to protect the rear, and reserves often stood behind or between the divisions.

The main leaders in a comitatenses unit included:

• Comes: the leader of the army
• Primicerius: the commander of the first cohort
• Ducenarius: the commander of 200 soldiers
• Centenarius: the commander of 100 soldiers

There were also several other ranks, such as Centenarius Protector and Biarchus (a former optio, or assistant).

The borders of the empire were guarded by the limitanei. They were responsible for handling small raids, but in the case of larger invasions, they tried to hold out until the comitatenses legions arrived.

The comitatenses were then grouped into field armies, a strategy called "defense in depth." To conserve manpower, the general often tried to avoid an open battle. Instead of attacking the enemy, the legions formed a shield wall and waited for an enemy attack. Due to their superior coordination, the Romans could defeat the enemy. The emperor led the comitatenses legions to suppress uprisings.