Introduction: Roman Republic

The Roman Republic began in 509 BC, after the fall of the Roman Kingdom, and ended in 27 BC with the establishment of the Roman Empire. During this period, Rome expanded its power from the city itself to dominance over the entire Mediterranean.

The Romans Society was a mix of Indo-European peoples such as the Latins, Etruscans, and Sabines with many Greek influences. Politically, Rome had a system with annual elections where seats were elected within the oligarchy of a small group of wealthy families. The senate played an important role, but the magistrates, elected for one year, determined the policy. This custom can be derived from the Proto-Indo-European class system, which likely distinguished between the working class (originally shepherds), warrior class (including aristocracy), and religious class, with the warrior and religious classes closely merging.  

During the Republic, Rome was almost constantly at war. The first enemies were the neighboring Latins and Etruscans, followed by the Gauls, who sacked Rome in 387 BC. After this defeat, Rome conquered the entire Italian peninsula and became a major power in the Mediterranean. The greatest strategic opponent was Carthage, with whom Rome fought three wars. In 202 BC, Rome defeated Carthage at the Battle of Zama, confirming its status as the dominant power in the Mediterranean.

Within Rome, there were conflicts between the patricians, the wealthy elite, and the plebeians, the common people who wanted more say. This conflict was resolved in 400 BC when the plebeians gained more political rights. The late Republic, from 133 BC, was, however, a period of internal unrest. Conflicts arose between conservative and reform-minded politicians, leading to violence and wars. The Social War (90-88 BC) between Rome and its Italian allies was one of the most significant conflicts. Slave uprisings, such as the Three Servile Wars, exacerbated the situation.

Rome was originally ruled by kings, chosen for life by the senate. The last king, Tarquinius Superbus, was deposed in 509 BC after the rape of Lucretia by his son. This led to a revolution led by Lucius Junius Brutus, who abolished the monarchy and transferred power to two consuls, elected for a term of one year. Although the ancient stories speak of a popular revolution, modern historians consider this more as an aristocratic coup.

The first wars of the Republic were primarily expansion wars. Rome 'defeated' the Sabines and the neighboring Latin cities, such as in the Battle of Lake Regillus in 496 BC and the Battle of Corbio in 446 BC. However, Rome suffered a heavy defeat in 477 BC in the Battle of Cremera against the Etruscan city of Veii. This defeat was avenged in 396 BC, when Rome destroyed Veii. By the end of this period, Rome had defeated its neighboring Etruscan and Latin opponents and secured its position in Central Italy. However, modern historians question the military nature of these conflicts, suggesting that it is also possible that Rome began to play an increasingly dominant role, with more peoples seeing the advantage of cooperation. The aristocratic families of Rome had just as much interest in neighboring cities. The cultural differences between the different 'city-states' were relatively small, and both aristocrats and inhabitants migrated between these cities. 

In the early years of the Roman Republic, the patricians were the dominant power in politics and society. They consisted of a closed group of about 50 large families, who monopolized the magistracies, priesthoods, and important military positions. The power of these families stemmed from their wealth, especially through land ownership and their role as patrons for their clients.

The plebeians, the large number of common citizens, formed the backbone of the Roman economy. They worked as farmers, traders, and craftsmen and were often required to serve in the army during wartime. The plebeians initially had no access to high political or religious positions. To defend their rights, they organized themselves and elected tribunes, who represented their interests and had the right to veto laws.

In 494 BC, the first "secessio plebis" took place, a strike by the plebeians to protest against the poor treatment of debtors by the patricians. This led to the establishment of the tribunes and the gaining of political influence for the plebeians. Over the centuries, the power of the plebeians expanded, especially after the Lex Hortensia in 287 BC, which made plebiscites binding for all citizens, including patricians.

In 390 BC, several Gallic tribes, who had already been living in Northern Italy since around the 6th century BC, moved towards Rome.  In the Battle of the Allia River, the Romans were defeated and the Gauls, led by the Senones, sacked Rome. After the Gauls had sacked Rome, they continued to plunder the surroundings of Rome for years. This event created a collective trauma that the Romans would continue to remember. 

Around 300-400 BC, Rome expanded its influence, particularly after the wars against the Samnites and other Italian peoples. Rome became the dominant power in Italy, but had not yet encountered conflicts with the great powers of the Mediterranean, such as Carthage and the Greek kingdoms.

In 280 BC, the city of Tarentum, after a conflict with Rome, requested assistance from Pyrrhus, king of Epirus. Pyrrhus, a descendant of Alexander the Great, arrived with an army of 25,500 men and 20 elephants. He won several significant victories, but the Romans were able to recover quickly. At the Battle of Asculum in 279 BC, Pyrrhus achieved a costly victory. He would later say, "If we win another battle, we shall be utterly ruined." Eventually, he withdrew from Italy after further losses at the Battle of Beneventum in 275 BC.

During the Second Punic War (218-201 BC), Hannibal crossed the Alps with his army and achieved major victories, such as at the Battle of Cannae. Despite these successes, Rome recovered and ultimately defeated Carthage at the Battle of Zama (202 BC). Scipio Africanus, with the support of the Numidians, brought Rome the victory. This made Rome the dominant power in the western Mediterranean.

In the 2nd century BC, Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus attempted to implement social reforms, such as land reforms and citizenship rights for Italian allies. However, both brothers were killed by political opponents. Meanwhile, Rome expanded its territory, as with the establishment of Gallia Narbonensis in 121 BC.

The demand for citizenship rights led to the Social War (91-88 BC), in which Rome fought against its Italian allies. After a hard-fought struggle, the allies were granted Roman citizenship. This brought more stability, but internal political tensions continued to grow.

The conflict between L. Cornelius Sulla and Gaius Marius escalated into a civil war. Sulla established himself as dictator in 82 BC and strengthened the power of the Senate with reforms. After his resignation in 79 BC, Rome remained divided, further straining the political system.

In 49 BC, Julius Caesar chose a civil war against Pompey. After his victory, Caesar became dictator and implemented significant reforms. His opponents feared an absolute rule, which led to his assassination in 44 BC. This did not restore the Republic, but rather led to more chaos.

After the assassination of Caesar, Marcus Antonius, Octavianus, and Lepidus formed the Second Triumvirate. They defeated Caesar’s assassins at Philippi (42 BC), but tensions between Antonius and Octavianus led to new conflicts. In 31 BC, Octavianus defeated Antonius and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium.

After Actium, Octavian became the sole ruler of Rome. In 27 BC, he received the title Augustus and became the first emperor, completing the transition from the Republic to the Empire.

The Roman legal system had a strong Indo-European character. The society was based on oath-bound reciprocity where the judges' primary task was to maintain the cosmic order and thus avoid acts of revenge and feuds.

In Rome, magistrate officials had a lot of power, especially those with imperium, such as the consuls, praetors, and censors. Magistrate officials could also maintain public order by imposing penalties for crimes. The legal system recognized the "provocatio", an early form of legal protection, which protected citizens in Rome from unjust intervention by magistrate officials.

In times of crisis, a dictator could be appointed to exercise temporary absolute power. The office usually lasted six months, after which the normal government was restored.

The censors were magistrate officials responsible for the census and the supervision of public morality. Their decisions could only be overturned by another censor.

The Roman army evolved over time. In 107 BC, the army became accessible to all citizens (with civil rights), regardless of their social class. The legions consisted mainly of heavy infantry, and the army commanders still came from the aristocracy. In the late Republic, the army was a professional army, with soldiers receiving a fixed salary.

Although Rome had large armies, the army was weak in cavalry, especially against the fast cavalry of the eastern enemies. Rome tried to solve this problem by strengthening the navy, particularly for the invasions of Caesar and Pompey.

In Roman society, the pater familias, the oldest man in a family, was the one who held authority over the family and its assets. Citizenship granted rights but could also mean a loss of social status if one did not adhere to Roman morals. Slaves were an important part of society. Some slaves were freed, but they often retained a lower status than other citizens. The Romans had a system of patronage, in which wealthy and influential people offered protection to less wealthy citizens in exchange for loyalty. 

Citizens were expected to marry and have as many children as possible to strengthen the family. Marriages were often political instruments to increase influence. Patricians married through a formal marriage ritual that placed the woman under the control of her husband. Common citizens had more freedom in their marriages, which did not always require the man's control over the woman.

In the Roman Republic, military power was of great importance. For each campaign or battle, Roman commanders took auspices (divine predictions) to know if the gods were favorable to them. Success in battle was seen as a combination of personal virtue (virtus) and the will of the gods. Generals who triumphed dressed as Jupiter Capitolinus and laid their laurels at his feet. Failure to observe religious rituals or lack of virtue often led to military defeats. Soldiers who were defeated had to take their own lives rather than be captured. Virtuous sacrifices, such as those of the Decii Mures, in which soldiers gave their lives for a victory, were considered the highest good.

Life in the Roman Republic revolved around the city of Rome, where the main political, administrative, and religious institutions were located. Rome rapidly expanded beyond the original boundaries and the first city walls. In 312 BC, the first aqueduct was built, which provided the city with clean water. The construction of aqueducts led to the spread of public baths (thermae), which played a central role in Roman culture. Rome also had various theaters, gymnasiums, and numerous taverns and brothels. Living was expensive, and many common citizens and freedmen lived in apartment blocks (insulae), while the wealthy had large houses with an open atrium for meetings and displaying wealth.

Roman cities often had a forum and temples. Many estates were managed by overseers, while the owners resided in the city.

The Romans adopted many educational practices from the Greeks. Boys received physical training and were prepared for a military career, while girls were educated at home in weaving and spinning. Formal schooling began around the age of six and lasted until the early teenage years, focusing on reading, writing, and arithmetic. Good rhetoric and knowledge of the Latin language were essential for a political or legal career.

In the 3rd century BC, Greek art became popular in Rome, and many Roman homes were decorated with Greek landscapes. The Romans further developed their architecture, utilizing arches and vaults, which enabled them to construct impressive public works.

Roman literature was heavily influenced by Greek writers. Notable playwrights such as Plautus and Terentius wrote comedies and tragedies, and the first Roman epic poems were written by Naevius and Ennius. Cicero, a politician and philosopher, was one of the most important literary figures of the late Republic. His works on philosophy and oratory had a significant impact on both his contemporaries and later generations.