Introduction: Anglo-Saxons

The Anglo-Saxons were a people who spoke Old English and inhabited much of present-day England and southeastern Scotland during the early Middle Ages. They descended from Germanic settlers who established themselves in Great Britain from the 5th century AD and became a significant cultural group there. The Anglo-Saxon period began around the year 450 AD and ended in 1066 AD with the Norman conquest.

Although details about their early settlement and political development are unclear, by the 8th century a common Anglo-Saxon identity emerged, known as "Englisc." This identity was the result of the interaction between the Germanic settlers and the existing Romano-British culture. By 1066, the majority of the population in England spoke Old English and was considered "English."

The Viking and Norman invasions brought significant changes in the politics and culture of England. Yet, the Anglo-Saxon identity persisted and formed the basic for the medieval kingdom of England and the Middle English language. Although only about 26% of modern English words come from Old English, this includes most everyday words.

The Lindisfarne Gospels from the 8th century AD contain a page with the Chi Rho monogram from the Gospel of Matthews. This work is attributed to Eadfrith of Lindisfarne, possibly made in memory of Cuthbert. In the early 8th century, Bede wrote the first detailed description of the Anglo-Saxon origins. He described that the Anglo-Saxons were originally divided into small regional kingdoms, each with its own stories of their continental origins.

The term "Anglo-Saxon," now often used by historians for the period before 1066, first appeared in Bede'ss time, although it became widespread much later. Bede preferred "Angles" or "English" as a collective name, which eventually became dominant. Yet, like other writers, he sometimes used "Saxons" to refer to the early periods of settlement.

Roman British authors from the 3rd to 6th centuries described the first Saxons as North Sea raiders and mercenaries. According to Bede, these early invaders came from "Old Saxony," a region in what is now northern Germany. In his time, this area was known for its resistance to Christianity and Frankish rule. The English migrants (Angles) were said to have come from a neighboring area according to these sources.

The Anglo-Saxon material culture emerges in architecture, clothing, illuminated manuscripts, metalwork, and other art forms. Behind these cultural symbols lie strong ties of pagan tribal kinship and leadership. The elite regarded themselves as kings, built fortified settlements (burhs), and often later based their identity on Biblical terms. According to archaeologist Helena Hamerow, local and extended family ties were the primary productive unit throughout the Anglo-Saxon period.

Around 600 AD, the British monk Gildas described a war between the Saxons and the local population, caused by the expansion of the Anglo-Saxons in Great Britain. The Romano-British peoples united under the leadership of a figure named Ambrosius Aurelianus. Historian Nick Higham calls this conflict the "War of the Saxon Allies".

Gildas reported that the Britons won the war after a decisive siege of "Mons Badonicus." Although Bede, a later chronicler, considered the conflict as a prolonged struggle in which the Saxons would eventually prevail, Higham suggests that the peace after Mons Badonicus likely led to a treaty more favorable to the Saxons. This treaty allowed them to receive tribute from the inhabitants of the British lowlands. Gildas himself no longer saw the Saxons as an acute threat and focused his criticism mainly on the divisions among the Britons, who had fragmented into small, competing kingdoms.

Archaeological evidence shows that the Anglo-Saxon culture was already strongly dominant in large parts of Great Britain, even while Gildas was still writing. According to some historians, many Romano-British communities in the 5th century adopted this new culture, even if they had no Germanic ancestry or leaders. Other historians, following Bede, suggest that Gildas mainly focused on the Romano-British kingdoms in the north and west and that his account ignores large parts of Great Britain.

There are few written sources about the Anglo-Saxons from this period. Besides the work of Gildas, a contemporary, the eastern historian Procopius, provides some insight. He mentioned a story from Frankish diplomats about an island called Brittia, which was said to be divided between three peoples: the Britons, Anglii and Frisians. It was only in the late 6th century, when the Anglo-Saxons converted to Christianity, that more became known.

Around 616, Æthelberht of Kent, one of the first Anglo-Saxon rulers to be identified with certainty, began inviting missionaries from the pope. He married a Merovingian princess and converted to Christianity. Bede and later sources considered him a descendant of the original Saxons mentioned by Gildas, although they believed that his people were actually Jutes.

Despite doubts about the reliability of early genealogies, Æthelberht is seen as an important figure. He regained control over Mercia and expanded his influence over a large part of England. This marked the beginning of a long period of Mercian supremacy in the British landscape.

By 660, the political landscape of Southern Britain had changed dramatically. Smaller territories merged into larger kingdoms, which increasingly dominated each other. This led to the rise of kingdoms where a specific king was recognized as overlord. This system emerged from an early, loose structure of alliances, also known as feuds. Historians today use the term "heptarchy" less frequently for this period, as it suggests a uniform political system, while the kingdoms differed greatly among themselves.

Simon Keynes notes that the 8th and 9th centuries were a time of prosperity for the Anglo-Saxons, with economic and social stability in both the south and north of England. During this period, the kings and leaders of the kingdoms accumulated great wealth and power, which was passed down through multiple generations. They also became centers of art and knowledge. Bede, who worked in the far north of England, and Aldhelm, who was active in Malmesbury, were important figures symbolizing the cultural and intellectual flourishing of this time. Bede, known for his historical and theological works, gained great fame in Europe, and his work proved that the English were capable of significant scientific and religious contributions, such as astronomical calculations for the dates of Easter.

In the 9th century, Wessex, the kingdom led by King Egbert, became increasingly powerful. Egbert laid the basic for this power in the early years of the century and expanded his influence. In 829, he conquered the kingdom of Mercia, thereby increasing his control over much of southern England. The achievements of Egbert were later further developed by his successor, King Alfred the Great. The history of this period is recorded in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, which reflects the West Saxon perspective.

The Viking threat began in 793 with the raid on Lindisfarne, marking the first major Viking attack on English soil. These attacks stemmed from the growing wealth of the monasteries and the Anglo-Saxon society, which attracted the attention of the Vikings from Denmark and Norway. The attacks continued in the following years, resulting in more raids on monasteries such as Jarrow, Iona, and Lyminge. In 865, the so-called "Great Army" of Vikings arrived, which not only plundered but also settled in parts of England, such as the Danelaw, an area where the Vikings had significant influence.

King Alfred the Great played a crucial role in defending England against the Vikings. In 878, he defeated the Vikings at the Battle of Edington, which was a decisive victory for the Anglo-Saxons. Following this victory, Alfred began constructing a chain of forts, the so-called "burhs", across southern England to ward off further Viking attacks. Additionally, he reorganized the army so that half of the men stayed home while the other half served actively. Alfred also commissioned the development of a new type of ship that was better equipped to combat the Viking longships.

When the Vikings returned from the continent in 892, they found that they could no longer roam freely across the land, as they were met with resistance from local armies everywhere. After four years, the Scandinavian group split, with some settling in Northumbria and East Anglia, while the rest of the army returned to the continent.

After the Viking invasions, some stability returned to England under King Athelstan, who reigned in the early 10th century. His court became a center of intellectual activity, and it was there that two young men, Dunstan and Æthelwold, established themselves as priests. During the reign of King Edgar between 970 and 973, a council was held that established laws applicable to all of England. This was the first time that monks and nuns in England fell under a single detailed rule.

In 973, King Edgar received a second, "imperial coronation" in Bath, further strengthening his rule over England. During this time, England was under strong influence from significant ecclesiastical figures such as Dunstan, Æthelwold, and Oswald of Worcester.

Despite the early stability, England faced renewed Viking threats, especially during the reign of King Æthelred the Unready. The Viking attacks began in the 980s and became increasingly severe in the 990s. In 1009-1012, the country was heavily impacted by the armies of Thorkell the Tall, severely weakening the position of the English leaders. In 1013, Sweyn Forkbeard, King of Denmark, conquered England, and although Æthelred temporarily returned to the throne, his son Cnut became king of England again in 1015-1016 after Æthelred's death.

The Viking attacks exposed weaknesses and tensions within the Anglo-Saxon kingdom, and the internal problems within the kingdom became increasingly apparent. Many historians, such as Simon Keynes, believe that King Æthelred lacked the strength and judgment to adequately lead his people in times of crisis. This led to the eventual fall of the Anglo-Saxon kingdom and the rise of Danish domination in England.

After the Norman conquest in 1066, the English language changed significantly. Old English, which had been spoken for centuries, gradually fell out of use, although some people like the writer known as the Tremulous Hand of Worcester could read it until the thirteenth century. Old English texts, such as the Exeter Book, eventually became unusable, and some were even repurposed for other uses, such as pressing gold leaf. This marked the end of the Anglo-Saxon era.

With the arrival of Christianity, the concept of land ownership also changed. Kings gained the right to take land from landowners, especially for defensive purposes. This led to new forms of land ownership, where land was permanently transferred to the church and other institutions, replacing old family claims.

The Anglo-Saxon society was hierarchically organized, with a clear division between free men and slaves. The highest class consisted of the king, the nobles or thegns, and the ordinary free men or ceorls. The slaves were lower in the hierarchy, and although slavery was not widespread, it did exist throughout the entire Anglo-Saxon period. Slaves could acquire their freedom, but this changed little about their social status.

The organization of society was largely based on the family, and most people lived in close-knit family groups. During this time, larger settlements and court structures also emerged, especially after the Viking Age. This changed the nature of land management and settlement, which became evident in the Domesday Book of 1086.

Monasteries played an important role in Anglo-Saxon society, both as centers of religion and intellectual activity. Many of the earliest churches in England were still made of wood, but in the late tenth and early eleventh centuries, many stone churches were built. The best-known examples are the abbeys of Glastonbury, Old Minster in Winchester, and the cathedral of Peterborough. The Romanesque style, which emerged on the European mainland, only reached England after the Norman conquest. The influence of this new style was visible in the rebuilding of churches, such as Westminster Abbey, which was rebuilt by Edward the Confessor.

Early Anglo-Saxon art is mainly found in decorated jewelry, such as brooches, buckles, beads, and wrist clasps, some of which are of exceptional quality. Characteristic of the 5th century are the disc brooches, often adorned with motifs of squatting animals, like the silver disc brooch from Sarre, Kent. The origin of this style is a subject of debate but is often seen as a derivative of provincial Roman, Frankish, or Jutish art. Another style that developed from the end of the 5th century and continued into the 6th century is visible on many square brooches and is characterized by pattern decorations based on animals and masks. This style was eventually replaced by another style, characterized by serpentine beasts with interwoven bodies. By the end of the 6th century, art from southern England is distinctly recognizable by the use of more expensive materials, such as gold and garnet. This reflects the growing prosperity of a more organized society with better access to imported precious metals. Examples include the buckles from the Taplow grave (circa 600) and the jewelry of Sutton Hoo (circa 625). The symbolism of the decorative elements, such as the intricate patterns and animal figures found in these early works, remains unclear. These objects were products of a society that invested its modest surpluses in personal adornments, craftsmen, and jewelers of high caliber, where owning a fine brooch or buckle was a valuable status symbol.

With the transition to Christianity, symbolism began to play an even more important role in the art of the Anglo-Saxons. The walls of churches would have been colored, and the halls were decorated with paintings that told stories of monsters and heroes, like those in the epic poem Beowulf. Although little remains of the murals, there is evidence of their presence in Bibles and psalters, where illuminated manuscripts played a significant role. The poem The Dream of the Red is an example of how the symbolism of trees was integrated into Christian thought, depicting the crucifixion of Christ as a story rooted in the native traditions of the Anglo-Saxons.

In the 9th century, we also see iconic works such as the Alfred Jewel, engraved on the back with fleshy leaves, and the stole and maniples of Bishop Frithestan of Winchester, decorated with acanthus leaves, along with figures bearing the influence of Byzantine art. In the second half of the 10th century, Winchester and Canterbury developed into the main centers of manuscript art. They developed colorful paintings with lush foliage borders and colored line drawings, reflecting the artistic flourishing of this period.

By the beginning of the 11th century, the artistic traditions from Winchester and Canterbury had merged and spread to other centers. Although manuscripts remained the primary art form, some architectural sculptures, ivory carvings, and metalwork also survived, showing that the same styles appeared in secular art and spread locally. The wealth of England in the late 10th and 11th centuries was clearly reflected in the lavish use of gold in manuscripts, as well as in vases, textiles, and statues (now only known from descriptions). The art from southern England was very influential in Normandy, France, and Flanders from around 1000, and after the Norman conquest, a large number of these artworks were confiscated.

The Bayeux Tapestry is often considered the pinnacle of Anglo-Saxon art. It tells the story of the Battle of Hastings and the subsequent conquest of England by the Normans, and is often attributed to an artist from Canterbury commissioned by Bishop Odo of Bayeux. The tapestry is a magnificent example of the rich colors, abstract ornaments, and representational subjects characteristic of Anglo-Saxon art. This work marks nearly 600 years of artistic change and reflects the cultural connections between England and other parts of Europe.