Etruscan hoplite, Roman-Etruscan wars

In this blog, we follow Laran, an Etruscan hoplite in the year 396 BC. He is a citizen-soldier of the Etruscan city of Veii, which is besieged by Rome—a Latin city that at this time is merely a regional player. The massive Roman army has completely surrounded Veii, but Laran is confident they will never break through the city walls. However, he finds it suspicious that the Romans attack them so recklessly and disorganized day and night, while they are known for their discipline and tactical prowess. What could they be planning?

During the Iron Age, large parts of Central and Northern Italy were inhabited by the Etruscans. The Etruscan civilization can be traced back to the Villanovan culture in the bronze Age and reached its peak in the seventh and sixth centuries BC. Because we currently know very little about the non-Indo-European language they spoke, much of what we know about the Etruscans is based on sources written by surrounding peoples, notably the Romans and Greeks. These respectively called them the 'Tusca' and 'Tyrrhenians', although according to the Greek writer Dionysius of Halicarnassus, the Etruscans called themselves 'Rasenna'. The Etruscan script was partly based on Euboean characters, a form of Greek script used in southern Italy.

The metalwork and ceramics of the Etruscans were of very high quality, making them important trade goods throughout the Mediterranean region. The Etruscan cities, which were connected in a loose confederation (the Etruscan League), became very wealthy and powerful in the region, but also developed a strong rivalry with the Greek colonies in the Mediterranean. Because the Etruscans noticed that the Greeks were far ahead of them militarily, they adopted many important elements from Greek martial culture, such as the hoplite and the phalanx. They would use this battle formation until their conquest by the Romans in the fourth century BC.

The Etruscans were an important ally of Carthage and the two often collaborated to thwart the Greeks in Italy. This often took the form of piracy, but also in instances such as on Corsica in 549 BC, or during the Carthaginian invasion of Sicily in 480 BC, Etruria played a significant role. However, the Greeks won this conflict, and the Etruscan fleet was so severely destroyed in this war that the Etruscans withdrew from naval warfare and focused on their core territory in Central Italy. Here, they soon came into conflict with the Romans, who were an emerging power in Italy at the time. Rome would even conquer all of Etruria in the course of the fourth century BC, bringing an end to Etruscan rule in Central Italy.

The Ancient Greeks, during the Archaic and Classical periods, had spread throughout the entire Mediterranean and Black Sea regions in the form of city-state colonies, according to the philosopher Plato like 'frogs around a pond.' These city-states brought the Greek language and culture far beyond the Balkan Peninsula and had a strong influence on the surrounding peoples. The Etruscans, who were heavily influenced by Greek culture and the system of city-states, also adopted the Greek military tradition during the Archaic period; our Etruscan hoplite Laran is a living example of this.

The hoplite emerged during the Archaic period as a product of the Greek city-state (polis). These soldiers, who made up the main part of Greek armies, were heavily armed citizen-soldiers who fought to defend the city in which they lived and worked. In Greek and Etruscan culture, the city-state (and its citizenship) was central to society. (Male) citizens of these poleis had special rights in addition to economic privileges. For example, they could participate in exclusive religious rituals and have a say at various levels in the political sphere of their city-state. However, citizenship of a polis was not only a privilege but also brought certain obligations. The greatest of these was a form of military conscription for male citizens: if you were a member of the city community, you had to be able to defend it.

Hoplites were, as citizen-soldiers, wealthy farmers or craftsmen in their daily lives who had to gather their own armor and were called up in times of war to fight for their polis. Every summer was a 'war season', during which cities fought these conflicts with each other. This was done in battles where the shield walls (phalanx) of both sides clashed and pushed until one of the two lines was broken. The way the hoplites fought in these battles ensured that their collective identity was strengthened: they fulfilled their civic duty together with friends, family members, and acquaintances and were protected by the shield of the soldiers (and fellow citizens) next to them. Due to this strong urban warrior culture, not only individual heroism was valued, but also a kind of collective heroism for the honor of the city community.

The Etruscans came into conflict with Rome more frequently during the fifth and fourth centuries. At the beginning of this period, Rome was only a small city-state, but it slowly grew to become the most powerful player in the Central Italian region. The siege of the Etruscan city of Veii between 406-396 BC is seen as an important turning point in these conflicts, after which the Romans transitioned from defensive to offensive wars and thus began to slowly conquer Etruria. Most of what we know about this has been passed down to us by the Roman historian Livy in his work Ab Urbe Condita (Book 5). It is important to take Livy's account with a grain of salt, as his work was created hundreds of years later as a piece of propaganda for Emperor Augustus.

Veii was a large city on the Tiber with approximately 20,000 - 30,000 inhabitants, situated on a large rock of volcanic pumice stone, making it difficult to attack. It was the richest and most powerful city-state in Etruria, but according to Livy, it had politically isolated itself from the Etruscan League because, unlike the other oligarchic Etruscan city-states, it was ruled by a king. This was probably not the real reason, and the Etruscan League was merely a loose alliance, with most poleis also in conflict with each other, comparable to Greece during this period.

Growing Rome, which was only 10 kilometers away, could therefore afford to wage war with Veii in the fifth century BC without being immediately destroyed by the power of all Etruria. In 406 BC, the Etruscan city was besieged and attacked by the Romans at various times, a process that would last 10 years. In 396 BC, this changed because the Roman commander fell, and the Senate had learned that Veii would ask the Etruscan League for help. Therefore, according to Livy, the dictator Marcus Furius Camillus was appointed (although, like many people in his work, he is most likely fictional).

This Marcus devised a ruse to quickly conquer the city; while a large part of his troops distracted the Etruscans by attacking the walls of Veii for days, he had sappers dig a tunnel through the soft rock on which the city was built. The Etruscans had to watch the city walls at all times, but according to Livy, they found it remarkable that the Romans stormed them so disorganized and recklessly. Before they could figure out what was happening, the Romans had completed their tunnel, and the Roman army entered the city through the tunnel exit in the temple of Juno. Here they caused a massacre and looted everything that was not nailed down. The Etruscan population was enslaved by their Roman conquerors, who would now inhabit the city. The great wealth that the Romans plundered in Veii allowed them to take over the rest of Etruria in the coming century.

According to Livy, the conquest of Veii was also confronting for the dictator Marcus, who had brought this victory to the Romans. During the festivities and triumphal procession of the Romans, he suddenly realized that the fate of the mighty city of Veii could also befall Rome. This scene of a commander envisioning the fall of their own city (particularly Rome) during the siege of an enemy city is a theme that is often seen in Livy's work, such as the fall of Troy and Carthage. Thus, this was likely an addition for dramatic effect.

Laran wears a tunic, a belt, and a pair of simple leather sandals under his armor. When it rains or if he is cold, he wears his thick woolen cloak.

Mediterranean tunics were made of linen, sometimes also of wool. The tunic that Laran wears under his armor has short sleeves, but in the warmer months, Etruscans often wore light garments that left their arms and shoulders uncovered. They did not wear trousers under their tunic, as they considered them barbaric.

Due to the warm, temperate climate, sandals (sandaloi) like these were worn in Italy and the rest of the Mediterranean region. Although Laran wears simple military sandals that are less open to better protect the feet, there were constant new fashion trends for sandals in antiquity determined by fashionable Athens. 

Besides sandals, from the fifth century BC, people also wore a type of lace-up boots (such as endromis and embades) and in winter, felt socks (piloi) to keep the feet warm. 

To shape the tunic, both simple leather belts and fabric girdles were used.

The chlamys was a woolen cloak worn in classical Greece. It kept the clothing clean and offered the wearer protection against the elements.

The cloak that Zeno wears is not only intended to keep him warm but also forms part of his armor. On the battlefield, he wraps the cloak around his weapon arm to protect it against spears, swords, and arrows.

The cloak was fastened with a fibula, a metal clothing pin that was often decorated.

The weaponry of Laran is representative of the average Etruscan hoplite from the fourth century BC. He wears a large bronze shield, 'Phrygian' bronze helmet, linen linothorax and bronze greaves to protect his body. He uses a long spear, the doru, to fight in formation and a short sword, the xiphos, as a secondary weapon.

The large bronze shield (hoplon / aspis) was the most important part of the hoplite's equipment; the name 'hoplite' is even derived from it. This heavy shield was meant for fighting in a dense shield-wall formation (phalanx), where a hoplite was partially covered by the shield of those next to him.

The hoplon was often decorated with bronze work or paint. These decorations were applied for various reasons but usually had a symbolic meaning. For instance, the hoplon was used to display the identity of the hoplite's polis. The shield of Laran is adorned with a gorgoneion, the head of a monstrous gorgon demon that could petrify people with her gaze. In Etruscan culture, the gorgon was a symbol of royal or aristocratic power and is frequently seen on shields. This decoration also had another mythological meaning, discussed in the chapter on the linothorax.

The Thracian helmet worn by Laran was a commonly used helmet among hoplites in the late classical and Hellenistic period. It had the characteristic shape of the Phrygian cap, a garment worn by various Indo-European peoples, notably the Thracians and Phrygians. This helmet shape gave soldiers an intimidating profile because the wearer appeared taller than he actually was. Additionally, the wearer could hear well, and the helmet, with the addition of large cheek plates, offered a good compromise between field of vision and protection.

The linothorax (literally ‘linen breastplate’ in Greek) was a type of armor worn by warriors throughout the Mediterranean region until the third century BC. It was a cuirass made of thick layers of linen that protected the torso and upper legs against bronze arrowheads. Although a linothorax provided less body protection than full bronze breastplates, it was much lighter, more maneuverable, and cheaper to produce. It was also much more resistant to corrosion from seawater than metal armor: particularly when traveling or fighting at sea, one would have preferred the linothorax.

The linothorax and the shield of Laran are both decorated with a gorgoneion. This decoration to ward off evil forces is also inspired by Greek mythology: namely from the aegis, a mythological armor or shield to which a gorgon head was attached. It could protect the wearer against all dangers and was worn in myths by the gods Zeus (as a shield) and Athena (as armor). Laran, unsure which version of the myth is correct, has (to be safe) chosen to use this doubly.

Because the shield of the hoplite was round, it could not cover the entire lower body. Therefore, hoplites like Laran also wore bronze greaves. These were anatomically shaped and provided protection for the knees and shins.

The spear that Laran carries was the most important weapon of the hoplite and was used from the Archaic period to the time of Alexander the Great. The doru (or dory) had a length of 2-3 meters, long enough for multiple lines of hoplites to fight as part of the shield wall.

The spear was made of ash wood and had, besides a leaf-shaped spear head, also a pointed butt cap that could be used in various ways. This helped to plant the spear in the ground, and hoplites could easily kill wounded enemies while holding the spear upright. Additionally, the butt cap could be used by the hoplite as a backup-spear head when his doru broke in half.

Smaller javelins were also used by hoplites and other Greek soldiers.

The xiphos was an iron sword that served the hoplite as a secondary weapon and was only used when their spear (dory) broke or when fights had to occur at very close range, such as when lines were breached.

You can also choose to use a kopis (also known as falcata for the Iberian variant) for your composition, a single-edged sword. This became increasingly popular over the course of the classical period and even took over the role of the xiphos as the primary 'hoplite sword'.