Roman cavalry spears

The Roman cavalry played an important and versatile role within the army, even though it was never the main weapon like the heavy infantry. Over the centuries, the Romans learned from their experiences, including major setbacks such as at Cannae in 216 BC and  Adrianopolis in 378 AD, and continuously adapted their tactics and organization. They frequently made use of allies and allied peoples from all corners of the empire. These foederati and auxilia units provided specialized cavalry that supplemented and strengthened the Roman army.

A well-known example is the Numidian light cavalry from North Africa, which excelled in speed, agility, and reconnaissance. They were used for ambushes, rapid attacks, and pursuits, and were indispensable in situations where mobility was essential. In addition to this light cavalry, heavy cavalry units also emerged, such as the alae, fully mounted and heavily armed with a lance, shield, and long sword. These elite units performed complex maneuvers and played a central role in major battles, often as escorts for the llegions.

From the second century AD, heavily armored lancers were added, known as cataphracts or clibanarii. These riders wore full body armor and wielded a long lance with two hands, allowing them to break through enemy lines. They were a tactical response to eastern enemies such as the Parthians and Sarmatians, who combined light archers with heavy riders. Thus, the Roman cavalry constantly adapted to new threats and styles of warfare.

In addition to these specialized units, there was also a large group of mixed infantry and cavalry units, the cohortes equitatae. These offered the army flexibility as they could operate independently and perform various tasks. These armies were significantly more mobile and could therefore be deployed more quickly.

The Roman cavalry was thus a mobile and strategic component of the army, in which allies worked together as specialized elite units. This made the Roman army a versatile and adaptive force that remained successful for centuries on diverse battlefields and in different combat conditions.

The Roman cavalry primarily used various types of spears as their main weapon throughout its existence. These spears were used both for throwing and thrusting, depending on the type and tactical application. Within Roman military terminology, these weapons were referred to by different names: hasta, contus, lancea, spiculum, iaculum, and tragula. Despite this variety of names, the spears differed little in construction. The main differences were in their length, weight, and functional use.

The Jewish historian Flavius Josephus briefly describes the equipment of the Roman cavalry under the command of Vespasian during the campaign in Judea in his work The Jewish War (III.5,5). He writes:

“The riders carried a long sword (μάχαιρα) on the right side, in their hand they held a long lance (κοντός); on the side of the horse hung a elongated shield (θυρεός). Furthermore, they carried in a quiver three or more javelins (ἄκοντες) with leaf-shaped points. Their helmet and armor were similar to those of the infantry.”

This description provides a rare insight into the standard armament of cavalrymen in the 1st century AD. They were clearly heavily equipped and could operate effectively both in the mêlee and at a distance. The presence of a large sword and a long lance made them suitable for close combat, while the javelins offered a tactical option to strike enemies from a distance. The shield, the clipeus, provided protection on horseback and resembled the elongated scutum used by the infantry, but was flat and oval. The similar design of helmet and armor for riders and infantry indicates a certain standardization within the army, while the cavalry remained functionally distinctive.

Older examples from the Kingdom period (from the 7th century BC) were still equipped with spear heads of bronze. With the improvement of ironworking, these were quickly replaced by iron leaf-shaped points, which over time were also made in triangular or square cross-sections, depending on their intended use. These metal points were usually attached to a slender wooden shaft, typically made from ash wood, cornel wood, or hazel wood – types of wood that were excellently suited for use in spears due to their resilience and durability.

The longer variants among these cavalry spears were usually equipped with a butt cap (ferrule), an iron, conically shaped point at the other end of the shaft, intended to protect the spear from wear when resting on the ground, and to reinforce it when used as a thrusting weapon. It is notable that the typical pilum of the legionnaires, known for its long, flexible iron shaft, was not part of the standard cavalry arsenal. Only in the context of camp defense from the walls were pila occasionally used by riders.

The leaf-shaped spear heads that have been found in larger numbers show considerable variation in length, from about 10 to 35 centimeters. Smaller variants, used as javelins, were often simply made and had roughly finished points, presumably due to mass production and their disposable nature. The larger lance points, intended as thrusting weapons, were carefully forged and of higher quality. Most had a distinct central rib, which increased both the structural strength and the piercing capability.

A distinctive feature of many late-Roman spear heads is their design: the underside of the blade is often wide and rounded (the so-called "shoulders"), after which the blade abruptly transitions into a narrow, pointed tip. This shape served a functional purpose: the cutting edges were sharp sharpened so that upon impact as much muscle tissue as possible could be severed, leading to large, severe injuries. This cutting action could make a single thrust fatal. Moreover, the broad shape of the point significantly aggravated the wound when withdrawing the lance from the enemy's body. This combination of depth and breadth of injury made such lance points extremely effective lethal weapons.

Spears were often also used as blunt weapons in the chaos of battle. In that respect, it was useful that the blade edge was sharp sharpened: a horizontal swing could also inflict injury.

Different in nature are the slender, polygonal spear heads with a triangular or square cross-section. These were not intended to cause wide, bloody wounds, but were specifically designed for maximum penetration power. Due to their streamlined and slender shape, these points were resistant to deformation or bending upon impact, and they concentrated the force on one small point - making them very suitable for piercing armor or thick layers of clothing. They are therefore also considered an early form of armor-piercing ammunition. Some of these projectile points are scarcely larger than the points of medieval crossbow bolts in size, but due to their weight - more than 20 grams - they are too heavy to have served as arrowheads.

Based on basic of shape, weight, and contextual findings, these points are considered to belong to light javelins. The Austrian archaeologist Hans Jörg Ubl has emphasized that many of these polygonal points have been found together with spear shoe fittings (shoe fittings) that correspond closely in size with them. This supports the suspicion that a significant portion of these projectile points were not used separately, but as complete, light javelins were part of the standard weapon arsenal of the cavalry.

The butt cap, located at the rear end of the spear shaft, had a primarily practical function in the Roman military context: it allowed the weapon to be firmly stuck into the ground when not in use. This was particularly important for long spears used in close combat. For smaller javelins, which according to Flavius Josephus were carried in a quiver, a butt cap was not necessary for this purpose - these spears could be stored without additional reinforcement.

Yet the butt cap had more than just a passive function. For the long thrusting spears, the pointed forged butt cap could also serve as an emergency stabbing weapon. When the spear broke during battle or when the rider did not have time to turn the weapon, the butt cap was used to deliver direct thrusts. There is evidence that wounded enemies on the ground were sometimes killed with a vertical thrust of the butt cap. This offensive application explains the existence of the butt cap on long spears intended for close-range combat.

Notably, even light javelins were sometimes equipped with a pointed butt cap, which initially seems unnecessary. However, the offensive function becomes clear when looking at the throwing method. When a spear did not fly straight but made a rotating motion—for example, by bouncing off a shield edge or other obstacle—or when the spear was deliberately thrown from the end with a swinging motion, a second point at the end significantly increased the chance of an effective hit. In that case, the pointed butt cap functioned as a secondary spear head, doubling the hit probability. However, this technique required great caution from the rider, as the battlefield was often littered with spears sticking out of the ground. The points protruding in all directions could severely injure horse and rider.

Besides the pointed variants, blunt shaft caps also existed, often provided with a round knob. In this form, the offensive function was eliminated, but the butt cap gained a utilitarian role. The knob served as a handle: on one hand, to more easily pull the spear out of the quiver, and on the other hand, to hold it at the end between the fingers when throwing, without the projectile slipping prematurely from the hand. 

The Roman cavalry used not only lances but also light javelins – weapons that were not only quick to handle but could also be used in a clever and deadly manner. According to Flavius Josephus, each rider carried a quiver with three or four javelins, which is logical given their practical use in battle. The spears were kept ready under the shield for throwing and then swung forward from behind the shield. The rider threw the spears in quick succession, which was a powerful and effective attack.

A commonly used technique was throwing with a rotating motion, where the spear hit its target in a half-turn. This technique was particularly effective against infantrymen hiding behind high shields: a spear that struck over the shield edge from above could still seriously injure or kill them. Arrianus describes how the spear was rotated radially and thrown with great force from a position behind the shield. This method had the additional advantage that the centrifugal force increased the penetration power of the spear head.

However, there were also disadvantages to this throwing technique. When the spear did not hit the target at a favorable angle, the shaft could break behind the point. Yet this also had a strategic advantage: the broken spear became unusable for the enemy.

A rider on a galloping horse could also apply significantly more force behind his throw than an infantryman. The speed of the horse – about 30 to 40 km/h or more – combined with the force of the throw, resulting in greater penetration. In an experiment with a spear of 146 cm length and a weight of 0.8 kg, a throwing distance of 24 meters was achieved on foot with a run-up, while the same spear reached up to 30 meters from a galloping horse. This confirms Xenophon's recommendation to make the first throw from as great a distance as possible, although this naturally comes at the expense of accuracy.

Although Josephus mentions spear quivers, it is unclear what they looked like or how they were precisely carried. Most visual sources – such as gravestones – show a servant (calo) with two spears behind the rider, but this does not seem a practical solution during combat. Roman sculptures and coins show quivers only with mounted archers, where they hang vertically from the saddle in a Parthian manner. Likely, spear quivers were also attached in a similar way for riders.

Another issue was the limited hand capacity of the rider: during a spear attack, he had to handle the shield, the reins, and multiple spears – a difficult combination. Moreover, the long lance, the main weapon of the cavalryman, also had to be temporarily stored. There was no space for this in the hands. A possible solution comes from later sources: Byzantine cavalrymen, as described in the Strategikon of Emperor Maurice, carried the lance on a strap over the back while using a bow or spear. Even modern lancers used this method. Although there is no direct evidence that the Romans did this too, the use of straps seems logical for practical reasons.

The names iaculum, spiculum, and tragula seem to denote different types of light javelins. Although it is challenging to make an exact distinction between these types, they can be characterized based on basic of archaeological finds as follows: they were typically 80 to 120 cm long and weighed between 300 and 600 grams. The penetration power of these spears increased almost proportionally with the weight, as the gain in speed with lighter spears was usually lost to energy loss upon impact.

The lance played a central role in the equipment of the Roman cavalry. A lance with a length of 2 to 2.5 meters offered significant advantages: it was still manageable enough to be used in hand-to-hand combat and was often equipped with a point at both ends, allowing it to be used when the other side of the lance needed to be available, for example, after a break. In emergencies, the lance could even be thrown, compensating for the lack of reach.

Longer lances, on the other hand, were more difficult to handle. They had to be wielded with two hands or placed under the arm, which made them impractical in combat after the initial attack. Moreover, they broke easily and were too cumbersome to be used effectively in the subsequent melee.

Another type of lance, related to the Greek hasta, was held firmly with the right hand, utilizing both the speed of the horse and the throwing motion from above. According to Minor Markle III, who supported this with practical experiments, the Macedonian cavalry used not only shorter lances and javelins for shock attacks but also the long Sarissa.

On the famous Alexander mosaic from Pompeii, Alexander the Great is depicted with such a Sarissa: a 2.5 to 3-meter-long spear, held at the center of gravity with the right hand while controlling the horse with the left hand. This handling requires intensive training, especially in closed formations, to prevent injuring fellow riders or followers with the long, double-pointed lance.

During a full gallop attack, it proved nearly impossible to hold onto or withdraw the lance after impact. Even if the lance did not break, it had to be released, after which the rider quickly reached for the sword to continue the fight.

Images and some written sources indicate that Roman cavalry in the mid- and late-republican period used a particularly long hasta of at least 3 to 4 meters, in a manner as described above. However, with the decline of the national Roman cavalry and the introduction of large oval shields, which were impractical with such long weapons, this lance technique largely fell out of use.

During the reign of Emperor Trajan, the first units of contarii appeared: heavily armed cavalrymen who wielded the contus, a lance 3.5 to 4.5 meters long. The contus was inspired by – or adopted from – the Sarmatians and Parthians, and was typically thrust with both hands from the hip, utilizing the full force of the driving horse.”

Sometimes the shaft of the contus was attached to the saddle, making it practically impossible to withdraw from an enemy. Nevertheless, the contarii rarely used this technique. Instead, they actively thrust the contus with both hands, allowing them not only to aim more accurately but also to thrust to the sides and rear and even perform defensive maneuvers. An important advantage of this method was that the rider could hold the lance at the very rear end, effectively compensating for the loss of reach that occurred with other thrusting techniques. The disadvantage was that the rider could carry no or only a small shield, which he compensated for with extensive armor.

The contus became the characteristic weapon of the cataphracts and clibanarii – heavily armored cavalry units that were incorporated into the Roman army from the time of Emperor Hadrian, modeled after Sarmatian, Parthian, and Persian examples. These riders were armored from head to toe and thus had sufficient protection to operate without shield.

The powerful thrust possible with the contus was not inferior to that of a couched lance. The main disadvantage, however, remained the two-handed handling, which limited the use of the reins at crucial moments. Nevertheless, the contus, compared to other fighting styles requiring both hands – such as archery or wielding a lance and shield – was relatively practical in use. The left hand did not have to carry a heavy shield, and the reins did not have to be completely released, as with shooting with arrow and bow.

The standard grip of the contus was as follows: with the right hand at the rear of the shaft, and with the left hand about 1 meter further forward, with the latter hand also holding the reins. This way, the rider could control both the lance and the horse simultaneously – especially as the point of the weapon naturally pointed in the direction in which the attack was launched.