Introduction: British Prehistory

The British 'Copper Age' or actually the bronze Age can be divided into two phases: an early phase (2300 to 1200 BC) and a later phase (1200 to 700 BC). Around 2475–2315 BC, the Bell Beaker culture appeared in England, characterized by bell-shaped pottery, flat axes and new burial rituals where bodies were buried in barrows. The Bell Beaker culture likely came from the region of the Netherlands to Northern France and descended from the Proto-Indo-European Corded Ware culture. They brought the Dharmic culture and religion to the British Isles.

These developments took place after the construction of the Sarsen Circle and trilithons at Stonehenge, which was one of the last monumental structures built by the Neolithic farmers on the island. 

With the arrival of the Bell Beaker culture, the knowledge of metalworking was also brought to Great Britain. Initially, objects were made of stone, but around 2150 BC, the Bell Beaker culture likely introduced copper and bronze. Bronze was made from a mixture of copper and tin.

Great Britain had rich, easily accessible tin deposits, especially in Cornwall. This led to early tin mining in this regions. Around 1600 BC, Southwest England experienced an economic boom due to the export of British tin to all corners of Europe. Archaeological research indicates that Cornish tin was even traded in the Levant. Archaeological traces of port activities have been found at Bantham and Mount Batten in South Devon. Additionally, copper was mined in North Wales, at the Great Orme.

The Beaker culture was not only skilled in bronze working but also in crafting jewelry from gold, silver, and copper. Examples of these have been found in the graves of the wealthy Wessex culture in southern England. In the early Bronze Age, the dead leaders were often buried in burial mounds according to Proto-Indo-European customs, with pottery vessels included. In later periods, cremation became increasingly common. Urns with cremated remains appeared in cemeteries, often alongside metal objects such as daggers.

The people of the Bronze Age lived in round houses and divided the landscape with field systems and stone boundaries. In places like Dartmoor, for example, rows of standing stones can be found. They kept livestock such as cattle, sheep, and pigs, hunted deer and birds, and gathered shellfish. They also produced salt. Marshes and wetlands were important sources of food, such as wild birds, and materials like reeds. These areas also played a role in rituals: offerings were often placed in water or in excavated pits there.

Many famous prehistoric structures, such as the later phases of Stonehenge and the wooden circle Seahenge, were built during this period.

In a genetic study by Patterson et al. (2021), a significant migration to southern Britain was discovered, occurring between 1300 and 800 BCE. These newcomers were genetically most closely related to ancient individuals from Gaul (modern-day France) and exhibited a higher level of Early European Farmers (EEF) ancestry. Between 1000 and 875 BCE, their genetic marker rapidly spread through southern England, where it came to form about half of the genetic background of the people from the subsequent Iron Age in this region. However, in northern Britain, this influence was hardly noticeable.

Researchers conclude that the genetic changes in southern England were not due to a violent invasion or a single wave of migration, but rather to prolonged contacts with the European mainland. Trade, intermarriage, and small family migrations over several centuries played an important role in this. These interactions are seen as a plausible route for the spread of early Celtic languages to Great Britain.

Although there was much less migration to Great Britain during the Iron Age itself, the findings suggest that the Celts likely arrived before that period.

Another remarkable discovery from the study is the rapid increase in lactose tolerance in early Iron Age Britain, about a thousand years before it became common in Europe. This suggests that milk became a crucial food source in Great Britain at this time, possibly due to the intensification of cattle breeding.

Around 750 BC, the knowledge of ironworking reached Great Britain from Southern Europe. Iron was stronger and more readily available than bronze, which brought about a significant change in daily life. Agriculture especially benefited from this: iron plowshares made it possible to plow faster and deeper, while iron axes could more efficiently clear woodland for agriculture. The landscape consisted of fields, pastures, and managed forests. There were many enclosed settlements, and land ownership became increasingly important.

In the early Iron Age, Southern England was characterized by the widespread Wessex pottery, such as the type from All Cannings Cross. This suggests that there was a cohesive socio-economic group in the region at that time. By 600 BC, however, this unity seems to have fragmented into various subgroups, each with their own pottery styles. Between 400 and 100 BC, we see the emergence of regional identities and a clear population growth.

Archaeological evidence suggests that the Late Iron Age was a period of increasing social tensions and conflicts, especially in Southern England. This is supported by evidence of fortified settlements, signs of warfare, and changes in social structures. This unrest may also have influenced the living conditions and social dynamics of the population during this period.

The Iron Age brought various rituals and practices, including the offering of animals as grave goods. In Hallaton, Leicestershire, evidence was found of an open-air sanctuary. The only structural evidence at the site was a wooden fence around the ditch. Here, a remarkable treasure known as the Hallaton Treasure was buried in a ditch in the early 1st century AD. 

The way people treated the dead varied greatly by region. Cremation was a common method, but inhumations also occurred, such as the chariot burials of the Arras culture in East Yorkshire and the cist burials in Cornwall. In Dorset, the Durotriges had small cemeteries, sometimes with valuable grave goods. However, the lack of excavated graves from the Iron Age makes it difficult to draw general conclusions. Some suspect that excarnation - where bodies were exposed to natural decay or dispersed - is responsible for the lack of grave finds.

It is believed that most people on the British Isles around 500 BC spoke a common Celtic language: Brythonic. This is based on place names recorded by the Greek The explorer Pytheas of Massalia was recorded and later transmitted via Strabo. During the Roman period, there is much evidence of place and personal names that support this. Tacitus wrote in his work Agricola that the language of the Britons differed little from that of the Gauls.

The people of this time were also talented craftsmen. They made complex gold jewelry and utensils from both bronze and iron in the typical La Tène art style.

The traveler Pytheas, whose own works have been lost, was cited by later classical authors as someone who called the people of Britain "Pretanoi." This word is related to "Britanni" and appears to have a Celtic origin.

During the Iron Age, the Britons lived in organized tribes led by a chieftain. As the population grew, conflicts arose between rival tribes, which was traditionally seen as the reason for the construction of hillforts. However, this interpretation is not always conclusive. Some fortifications are located not on strategic places like hilltops, but halfway up slopes, undermining their defensive value. It is therefore thought that "hillforts" also served as communal spaces or elite areas, and in some cases possibly even as simple cattle enclosures.

Although the first hillforts were built around 1500 BC, their construction peaked in the later Iron Age. In Britain, there are approximately 3,300 structures that can be classified as hillforts or similar "defended enclosures." By 350 BC, many of these structures fell into disuse, while the remaining fortifications were reinforced, indicating changes in their function or importance.

Pytheas wrote that the Britons were known as excellent wheat farmers. Large farms produced food on an almost industrial scale. This agricultural production was essential to feed the growing population and possibly to trade surpluses. According to Roman sources, Britain exported not only food but also hunting dogs, animal skins, and slaves.

In the centuries preceding the Roman invasion, a significant migration took place of Celtic-speaking refugees from Gaul (modern-day France and Belgium). This group, known as the Belgae, was displaced around 50 BC by the expansion of the Roman Empire. They settled along large parts of the southern British coast between approximately 200 BC and 43 AD. However, it is difficult to estimate what portion of the population they constituted. Additionally, a Gallic tribe, the Parisi, appeared in the northeast of England, maintaining cultural ties with the mainland.

From around 175 BC, regions such as Kent, Hertfordshire, and Essex became known for their advanced pottery production. The tribes in Southeast England began to partially Romanize and created the first settlements, oppida, large enough to be considered towns. 

Around 100 BC, iron bars began to function as a form of currency. Internal trade within Britain and trade with continental Europe flourished, particularly due to Britain's rich mineral reserves. A coinage system was developed, based on continental designs but featuring the names of local chieftains. This coinage was mainly used in Southeast England, while areas like Dumnonia in the west adhered to traditional barter means.

As the Roman Empire expanded northward, Rome's interest in Britain grew. This may have been caused by the abundance of minerals on the British Isles. This interest would eventually lead to the Roman invasion and the subsequent period of Roman Britain.

In approximately 50 BC, Julius Caesar wrote about Britain following his two military expeditions to the island in 55 and 54 BC. The failed invasion of 54 BC appears to have been an attempt to conquer at least Southeast Britain.

After several unsuccessful attempts, Rome eventually succeeded in subjugating Britain. In 43 AD, the Roman conquest of the island began, leading to Roman domination over much of Britain. This marked the beginning of the period known as Roman Britain, during which Roman influence dramatically changed the island's culture, infrastructure, and society.