Introduction: the Iberian Peninsula in prehistory

The Iberian Peninsula is located in a unique position. Although it is on the edge of the European continent, it was not isolated even in prehistoric times: via the sea, the peoples and cultures of the Iberian Peninsula had contact with Africa, the European Mediterranean region, France, the British Isles, and Ireland.

This strategic location, along with the relatively isolated interior, led to many different cultural influences. This article discusses several important prehistoric cultures on the Iberian Peninsula during the Copper-, Bronze- and Iron Ages.

An archaeological culture is defined based on basic of material remains. This is not the same as an ethnic culture, which also considers language, traditions, religion, history, and social structure. Sometimes an archaeological culture overlaps with an ethnic culture, but often it does not.

When studying the transition from one culture to another, it is important not to judge too quickly. In many cases, such transitions indicate changes in customs or lifestyle rather than the replacement of a population. This requires a nuanced and open approach.

The Beaker culture is an important culture from the European Bronze Age and lasted from approximately 2800 to 1800 BC.

The earliest beakers were probably developed around 3000 BC at the mouth of the Tagus in Portugal. They were an evolution of so-called copoz beakers, whose design likely originated through contact with the Neolithic population of Morocco.

Through overseas trade, the beakers reached Southwest Spain, Southern France, Italy, and Brittany. From Brittany, they were traded inland over the rivers of Europe. The beakers also reached Ireland, possibly along with the technique of copper smelting, and Hungary, where the speakers of the Proto-Indo-European languages had settled.

This early spread of the beakers likely had little to do with migration, as skeletons found in Beaker contexts show little genetic relation between Iberia and Central Europe.

In the Rhine area, the people of the Corded Ware culture adopted the beakers. Here the Beaker culture emerged. This culture had characteristic practices, such as methods for metalworking, and artifacts, such as copper daggers and stone bracelets. The same research as mentioned above, by Iñigo Olalde and colleaguess, has shown that migration played a significant role in the spread of the Beaker culture itself.

The people of the Beaker culture were Indo-European: their original culture was introduced from the steppe around 3500 BC. They possibly associated these large beakers with their dharmic culture of reciprocity . It is possible that during rituals, people drank alcoholic beverages from these cups together to seal mutual oaths. This symbolized the Indo-European ghosti principle where the guest and host maintained a sacred bond with each other. 

The Indo-European Bell Beaker culture followed the Iberian trade routes in the opposite direction. The culture spread to the British Isles, Central Europe, the coastal areas of France, and Sardinia and Sicily.

From around 2150 BC, the Bell Beaker people settled in Iberia. This significantly changed the local gene pool within a few centuries, with about 90% of the local male DNA from the Mesolithic and Neolithic being replaced by DNA of steppe origin.

On the Iberian Peninsula, they made local variations of the bell beaker. There were different styles, such as the Palmela type in Portugal, the Continental type on the Iberian plateau, and the Almerian type in Los Millares, Andalusia.

The Vila Nova culture, also known as the Vila Nova de São Pedro culture or the Tagus culture, developed during the Chalcolithic period around the mouth of the Tagus in Portugal, simultaneously with the Los Millares culture in the southeast of the Iberian Peninsula.

This culture is characterized by the construction of fortified settlements at strategic locations without natural economic resources, suggesting they served as central points in trade networks. Notable finds from this culture include crescent-shaped jewelry (lúnulae), ritual bowls, and slate plaques with a presumed astronomical significance.

The Vila Nova culture is divided into two periods:

1. Vila Nova I (Early Period):
   During this phase, from around 2600 BC, the culture built impressive fortifications such as the Castro do Zambujal, which was rebuilt six times during its existence. Characteristic finds from this period include stylized cups, slate idol plaques, and crescent-shaped clay forms, possibly with a calendar function. There is evidence of trade with North Africa, such as ivory and ostrich eggshells, and exchange with Los Millares.
2. Vila Nova II (Late Period):
   In this phase, around 2200 BC, the influence of the Bell Beaker culture increased. This was expressed in grave goods and objects that partially corresponded with the Bell Beaker style but also built on earlier traditions. Trade expanded to a distance of 1000 kilometers. Around 1800 BC, the influence of the Bell Beaker culture began to wane, and by 1300 BC, its traces were fully integrated into the local Atlantic Bronze Age cultures.

Important settlements of the Vila Nova culture include Vila Nova de São Pedro and Zambujal. Vila Nova de São Pedro had a defensive wall that protected circular houses and a square inner fortification. Zambujal was distinguished by a complex defense system with eight-meter-thick walls, towers, and loopholes. Both locations contain remnants of copper processing, such as slag and other artifacts. Around Zambujal, approximately ten related settlements have been identified, some of which were not fortified, indicating a settlement hierarchy.

Collective burials were common and were conducted in megaliths, artificial caves, and to a lesser extent, tholoi. The transition to the Bell Beaker culture is visible in the grave goods, which include characteristic ceramics and metal objects. These burial practices demonstrate both the cultural influence and continuity within the Vila Nova tradition.

Agricultural production in the fertile Tagus region led to surpluses, which were converted by the elites into luxury products, often from metal. Trade played a central role, with exchanges of goods such as ivory and ostrich eggshells with North Africa and other European regions's. In the later period, the trade reach expanded to 1000 kilometers.

The urban phase of the Vila Nova culture lasted from approximately 2600 to 1300 BC and overlaps with the Los Millares and El Argar cultures. The culture was characterized by artificial caves, similar to those in southeastern France, while Los Millares and neighboring cultures primarily built tholoi. These innovations emphasize the unique identity and complexity of the Vila Nova culture within the Chalcolithic landscape.

The Los Millares culture is considered one of the main drivers behind the increase in cultural complexity in the southeast of the Iberian Peninsula during the Chalcolithic. This civilization flourished between the end of the fourth millennium and the end of the third millennium BC, with its main site at Los Millares, near Santa Fe de Mondújar, Almería. This cultural and economic center shows the first signs of social stratification and technological advancement in the region.

The Los Millares culture developed during a period of significant cultural and technological changes. According to some researchers, the culture is a continuation of the Neolithic traditions of Almería, with a chronology starting around 3100 BC and ending around 2200 BC. Other experts suggest that the Los Millares culture began even earlier, possibly around 3500 BC, and that the early phase of this culture is closely linked to the development of its characteristic fortifications and burial sites.

During this period, the communities developed an advanced society with fortified settlements, megalithic tombs, and trade networks extending to North Africa and the Atlantic region.

The settlements of Los Millares were strategically located and medium one hectare in size. Exceptionally, the settlement of Los Millares itself, which likely functioned as a regional center, covered four to five hectares.

The settlements often had a strategic location near fertile valleys for agriculture or natural passages for trade and livestock farming. Many settlements were fortified with stone walls, towers, and complex access systems. The dwellings were made of stone, with a diameter of up to six meters. Well-known sites include Almizaraque, Terrera Ventura, El Tarajal, and Cabezo del Plomo.

The necropolises of Los Millares show a strong focus on collective burials, conducted in megalithic structures such as tholoi, caves, and hypogea. The main graves were large in size, with chambers up to six meters in diameter and access passages divided by stone slabs. The grave goods were often rich, including copper artifacts, stone tools, symbolic ceramics, and ivory.

The differences in architecture and grave goods indicate a social hierarchy, with richer graves located closer to the fortified parts of the settlements.

Trade networks played a crucial role in the Los Millares culture. These networks connected the southeast of the Iberian Peninsula with the Atlantic region and North Africa. Trade products included maritime bell beakers, ivory, and ostrich eggshells.

The agricultural production of wheat, barley, beans, and lentils yielded surpluses that were likely traded. Metalworking also played a key role, with products such as copper weapons and tools, as well as finely crafted stones and ceramics.

The Los Millares society was in a process of social stratification. Research into necropolises indicates the presence of elites responsible for water management, agricultural surpluses, and trade. While some researchers attribute the emergence of this complex society to local evolutionary developments, others suggest external influences, such as contacts with Cycladic or Phoenician colonists.

The Argar culture, named after the archaeological site El Argar in the province of Almería, flourished between approximately 2200 and 1550 BC in southeastern Spain. This civilization is considered one of the most influential societies in Europe during the 3rd and 2nd millennium BC and is often referred to as the first urban and state-like society in the western Mediterranean region. The cultural center was located in Almería and Murcia, but the influence extended further to parts of Granada, Yesén, and Alicante.

The Argar culture developed over a period of approximately 800-900 years. The chronology is generally divided into two phases:

1. 2300–1800 BC: This period was dominated by a male elite, buried with weapons such as daggers and battle axes. This reflected a clear social stratification and militarization.
2. 1800–1500 BC: In this phase, we see further stratification: the male elite was buried with long swords, the female elite with golden diadems. Children's graves with rich grave goods also became common, indicating hereditary social status.

Around 1500 BC, the Argar culture collapsed, presumably due to overexploitation of natural resources. Environmental studies show that deciduous forests in the area were replaced by Mediterranean shrubs, severely limiting agriculture and livestock farming.

The settlements of the Argar culture were often strategically located on heights or in hard-to-reach places. Major centers like El Argar, La Bastida, and Fuente Álamo had complex defense systems with walls and towers, while smaller settlements on plains were less protected.

The architecture consisted of rectangular buildings made of stone and clay, often on terraced hills. Within the settlements, there were residences, workshops, storage spaces, and communal facilities such as water channels and ovens. The population size varied from several hundred inhabitants in larger settlements to small communities in satellite villages.

The economy of the Argar culture was based on agriculture and livestock farming. Barley was the primary crop, while flax was used for textile production. Livestock farming included sheep, goats, pigs, and cattle. Mining and metalworking played a central role, with the production of bronze, silver, and gold for weapons, jewelry, and tools. Pottery was of high quality and was standardized.

The Argar culture maintained trade networks within the region and possibly with more distant areas. Glass beads in blue, green, and white have been found in burial contexts and show similarities with finds in Egypt, Mycenaean Greece and the British Wessex culture. Some beads date from the late 3rd millennium BC, suggesting that these were introduced early in Southeast Iberia.

Overexploitation of natural resources contributed to the decline of the Argar culture. Pollen analysis shows that deciduous oak forests were cut down and replaced by Mediterranean shrubs such as garrigue and maquis. This deforestation, combined with intensive agriculture and livestock farming, led to a decrease in productivity and a loss of ecological balance.

The burial practices of the Argar culture indicate a strong social stratification. Most burials were individual inhumations in cists, jars (pithoi), or pits, often beneath houses. Grave goods ranged from luxury items such as gold and silver jewelry, weapons, and pottery to simple grave goods or even none, depending on the social status of the deceased.

• Phase 1: Weapons such as daggers and battle axes for men, and functional tools for women.
• Phase 2: Long swords and gold diadems were added to elite graves, while children's graves with rich gifts became increasingly common.

The burial practices indicate influences from the eastern Mediterranean region, especially Mycenaean Greece.

The differences in burials indicate a highly hierarchical society with five social layers:

1. Leaders: Men with weapons and women with luxurious jewelry such as gold diadems.
2. Elites: Including women and children with rich grave goods.
3. Free citizens: Individuals with functional weapons and tools.
4. Lower classes: Individuals with simple grave goods.
5. Servants or slaves: Without grave goods, indicating their subordinate status.

The society was patriarchal, with men in dominant roles. Women were economically valued but had a lower social status.

Genetic studies show that the Argar population was a mixture of local and northern groups:

• ~60% Anatolian farmers (EEF)
• ~25% Western Hunter-Gatherers (WHG)
• ~15% Yamnaya (WSH)

Phenotypic characteristics included a majority of brown eyes, pale skin, and mostly brown hair. This genetic mix suggests interaction between local communities and migrants from Central Europe.

The Argar culture was one of the most advanced societies of the European Bronze Age. Its social stratification, technological advancement, and unique burial practices reflect a complex and influential civilization. 

The Phoenicians, Greeks, and later the Carthaginians established trading colonies in Iberia. 

In 1000 BC, the Phoenicians made first contact with the Iberian Peninsula and founded Gadir (present-day Cádiz), the oldest continuously inhabited city in Western Europe. Cities such as Malaka (Málaga) were also established by them. They introduced ironworking, the potter's wheel, olive oil, wine production, and writing. Their influence also promoted urban development and religious ideas.

The Greeks arrived around 800 BC and founded the colony Ampurias in Catalonia in 600 BC. Their influence was less direct than that of the Phoenicians, but their cultural legacy remained visible in Iberian monuments and art.

In the northeast, the Urnfield culture appeared, related to the Hallstatt culture. This period, also known as the protohistory of the area, saw the arrival of the Celts in multiple waves, possibly as early as 600 BC.

From the northeast, the Celtic culture spread to the highlands and the Atlantic coast. Various groups were formed, such as:

• The Bernorio-Miraveche group in North Burgos and Palencia.
• The Castro culture in Galicia and Northern Portugal, with unique features due to the influence of the Atlantic Bronze Age.
• The Duero group, possibly the precursors of the Vaccei.
• The Cogotas II culture, a pastoral culture that expanded southwards.
• The Lusitanian culture, which was heavily influenced by Celtic elements but is not linguistically considered Celtic.

Between 600 and 400 BC, the Urnfield culture in the northeast was gradually replaced by the Iberian culture.

Due to their geographical isolation, the Iberian Celts were never influenced by the La Tène culture. Proto-Celtic cultures also continued to be spoken in various inhospitable parts of Iberia for a long time. 

The result of this Celtic blending was a diversity of mixed cultures originating from ancestors (Neolithic farmers + Indo-European steppe herders) with adopted elements from the Urnfield culture, after which possibly with a Celtic migration flow, the culture became more Celtic. This mix followed a different composition than, for example, in Central Europe. These cultures became entirely unique due to the Greek and Phoenician influences in the coastal regions of the Mediterranean.

Tartessos is considered by the ancient Greeks to be the first civilization of the West. This mysterious culture flourished in the southwest of the Iberian Peninsula, within the area now comprising the provinces of Huelva, Seville, and Cádiz, between the 9th and 5th centuries BC.

 Presumably, the heart of this civilization lay on the banks of the Tartessos River, later called the Betis (Guadalquivir) by the Romans. Although Tartessos was famous for its metal wealth and cultural connections with the Phoenicians and Egyptians, much about this civilization remains unknown.

The Tartessian culture can roughly be divided into four phases:

• Late-Bronze Age (1200-900 BC)
  The first settlements appeared with a simple social hierarchy. These villages consisted of round or oval houses, built in strategic locations near agricultural lands and mines.
• Proto-Oriental phase (900-700 BC)
  There was a significant increase in metalworking and population growth. Tartessian elite groups began to distinguish themselves, as evidenced by the discovery of weapons and luxury items.
• Oriental phase (700-650 BC)
  This was a flourishing period for Tartessos, where Phoenician influence was clearly visible in techniques such as potter's wheels and finely crafted gold jewelry.
• Final phase (650-500 BC)
  Under King Argantonio, the only historically documented Tartessian king, the civilization reached its peak.

15 years after the death of Argantonio, following the Battle of Alalia, the civilization abruptly disappeared. Possibly the region was conquered by Carthage as punishment for Tartessos' support of the Greeks, or the area was taken over by local tribes.

The settlements of Tartessos reflect the unique combination of indigenous traditions and eastern influences. The core of the civilization was located in the current provinces of Huelva, Seville, and Cádiz, with important sites such as El Carambolo (near Seville), known for the discovery of a gold treasure possibly of religious nature, and Cancho Roano (Badajoz), whose function as a palace, temple, or both is still subject to debate.

Most settlements were built in strategic locations, such as the routes between mines and ports. For example, Tejada la Vieja controlled the mineral transports from the mines of Aznalcóllar to Gadir (present-day Cádiz). This indicates a well-organized system of trade and logistics.

In the later phases, settlements such as Carmona and Tejada la Vieja were surrounded by walls, emphasizing the need for defense. This suggests increasing internal tensions or external threats, possibly due to the rise of Carthage in the region.

The archaeological finds show houses with simple architecture: round or oval huts, often made of wood and clay. In the proto-Oriental phase, larger structures emerged, possibly used by the elite or for communal purposes.

The economy of Tartessos was strongly based on mining and trade, which made the region an important trading center in antiquity.

Tartessos was known for its abundance of gold, silver, copper, and lead. Mining centers such as Cerro Salomón, near the Tinto River, played a crucial role. Metals were extracted, processed, and transported in the form of ingots to ports like Onuba (Huelva). Additionally, the Tartessians acted as intermediaries between the Iberian tribes and the Phoenicians.

The Phoenicians played a central role in connecting Tartessos with the rest of the Mediterranean. They exported Tartessian metals and introduced goods such as luxury jewelry, glassware, and pottery. The Greeks from Phocaea were later also trade partners, as evidenced by Greek finds in Tartessian graves.

Besides mining, agriculture and fishing were also important economic activities. Tartessos produced wheat, barley, and figs, and had extensive livestock farming. The coastal areas supported a thriving fishery, which possibly also contributed to trade.

Trade with Britannia, especially in tin, was essential for the production of bronze. When other ports like Massalia (Marseille) gained access to these routes, Tartessos lost its economic power, which possibly contributed to its downfall.

The graves of Tartessos provide valuable insights into the social structure and cultural life.

The burial mounds of the elite contained luxury items such as gold jewelry, weapons, and imported goods. The treasure of El Carambolo includes gold breastplates and diadems, indicating a strong influence of Phoenician religious traditions.

Phoenician influences are evident in the transition from inhumation to cremation. Some graves, such as those at La Joya (Huelva), also contained sculptures and objects with religious symbolism, such as depictions of the goddess Astarte.

The graves of ordinary people were simpler, but they sometimes contained utilitarian items such as pots and tools, indicating a belief in the afterlife.

The Tartessian society was highly hierarchical, with a clear distinction between the elite and the rest of the population.

The elite consisted of merchants, warriors, and religious leaders. They controlled trade, managed the mines, and maintained diplomatic relations with foreign partners such as the Phoenicians and Greeks. King Argantonio was a famous example of this class.

Religion played an important role in the life of Tartessos. The society adopted deities like Astarte and Melkart from the Phoenicians. Sanctuaries and rituals reinforced the power of the elite and promoted social cohesion.

Archaeological finds such as princely graves and settlement layouts indicate a complex hierarchy. The elite had access to luxury goods, while the common population focused on agriculture, crafts, and mining.

The Southwest Paleohispanic script, also known as Tartessian, is one of the oldest forms of writing in Western Europe. This script was used from the late 8th century to the 5th century BC. Nonetheless, the language itself remains a mystery.

The Tartessian script combined alphabetic and syllabic elements. The inscriptions, such as the Estela de Bensafrim, are mainly found in southern Portugal and southern Spain. They were written from right to left and often contained ritual or funerary texts.

Although the Tartessian language has largely disappeared, it is believed to have influenced the later Turdetanian language, which Strabo described as a developed script with laws of great antiquity.

The Iberians were an ancient people living along the east and south coasts of the Iberian Peninsula from 600 BC. They are mentioned in Greek and Roman sources, such as those of Herodotus and Strabo. The term "Iberians" sometimes referred to all inhabitants of the peninsula, but usually to the non-Celtic groups on the east and south coasts. These people spoke the Iberian language, influenced by the Phoenicians and Greeks.

The Iberians lived in villages and fortified settlements (oppida) and had a tribal organization. They engaged in agriculture, bronze working, and writing. Through contacts with Phoenicians, Greeks, and Carthaginians, they became increasingly urbanized. The Iberian culture had a social hierarchy, with an elite and Indo-European societal system.

Important settlements included Castellet de Banyoles, Lucentum, and Sagunto. Art, such as the "Lady of Elche," shows Greek and Phoenician influences. Valuable treasures, such as the silver of Tivissa, were also found.

The Iberians traded with the Mediterranean region, including Phoenicians and Greeks. They produced distinctive pottery and metal objects. Their art and religion were influenced by Greek and Phoenician styles. They worshipped various gods and performed rituals in the open air or in sacred places such as caves and springs.

The Iberians were notorious warriors and fought as mercenaries for Carthage and Rome. During the Second Punic War (218–201 BC), they played a role in the conflict between Rome and Carthage. After this war, the Romans gradually conquered all of Iberia. The Iberians offered stubborn resistance, but by around 16 BC, the area was fully under Roman control.

Iberian warriors used, among other things, the famous falcata-sword and light shields. They were masters of guerrilla tactics and ambushes, but also known for their excellent cavalry. Their soldiers were often employed as mercenaries in wars around the Mediterranean.

The Celtiberians were a group of Celtic tribes that lived in the northeast of the Iberian Peninsula from around 600 BC. They spoke the Celtiberian language and wrote with a modified Iberian alphabet. The culture was a fusion between parts of the Iberian culture and the Celtic culture that had moved from the north towards the Iberian Peninsula. Their culture showed similarities to the Celts in Central Europe but also had its own unique features.

Their homeland was around the rivers Douro, Tagus, and Ebro. Here they built fortified cities and lived under the leadership of a military aristocracy. The most powerful tribe was the Arevaci, who dominated their neighbors from strongholds like Numantia.

From 195 BC, the Celtiberians came into conflict with Rome, which began with the conquest of their land. They offered stubborn resistance and revolted several times. The most famous example of this was the siege of Numantia in 134 BC. The Romans surrounded the city for months, leading to famine. Ultimately, many residents chose to kill themselves rather than surrender.

After the fall of Numantia, Roman influence increased. The culture and society of the Celtiberians changed significantly, with growing Romanization.

Although the Celtiberian culture was eventually absorbed into the Roman world, traces of it are still visible. Many place names in Spain have a Celtic origin, and archaeologists continue to make significant discoveries, such as the bronze plaques of Botorrita and weapons from their warrior graves.

In the 4th century BC, Rome became a powerful player in the Mediterranean region, competing with Carthage, a city-state in North Africa. After their defeat in the First Punic War (264–241 BC), the Carthaginians expanded their influence into the interior of Iberia from their settlements on the southeast coast. However, this expansion did not last long.

In 218 BC, the Second Punic War began. The Carthaginian general Hannibal assembled an army, including Iberian warriors, and marched from Iberia through the Pyrenees and the Alps to Italy to attack Rome. In response, Rome began the conquest of the Iberian Peninsula from the northeast.

The Roman Republic conquered territories on the Iberian Peninsula that were previously under the control of indigenous tribes, such as the Celts, Iberians, and Celtiberians, and of the Carthaginian Empire. During the Second Punic War (218–201 BC), the Romans defeated the Carthaginians in 206 BC and took over their territories in the south and east of Hispania. This marked the beginning of the Roman presence on the peninsula.

In 197 BC, the Romans established two provinces: Hispania Citerior (the eastern coastal area, including Valencia and Catalonia) and Hispania Ulterior (the south, largely Andalusia). The expansion of Roman control over Hispania proceeded gradually, through economic and cultural integration and military campaigns against local uprisings. Cities were often incorporated as allies or tax-paying areas within the Roman system.

After the fall of the Republic and the arrival of Emperor Augustus, the policy changed. After the Cantabrian Wars (29–19 BC), the north of Hispania was conquered. In 19 BC, the entire peninsula officially became part of the Roman Empire. Augustus also implemented an administrative reorganization.

Hispania Tarraconensis now included the northeastern and central parts of Hispania. Hispania Ulterior was divided into Baetica (Andalusia) and Lusitania, which covered parts of Portugal and Western Spain.