About Viking swords

The Viking Age sword (also called Carolingian or Frankish sword) is the type sword that was common in Western and Northern Europe during the Early Middle Ages. The Viking swords originated in the 8th century from the Merovingian spatha, more specifically from the Frankish production of swords in the 6th and 7th century. In the 11th and 12th centuries, this type then gave rise to the arming sword (arming sword) of the Romanesque period.

Although it is often colloquially called "viking sword", this type sword was produced in the Frankish Empire during the Carolingian period. The association of the name "Viking" with these swords arises from the disappearance of grave goods in Christian Frankish lands in the 8th century. As a result, most sword blades of Frankish manufacture from this period have been found in pagan graves from the Viking Age in Scandinavia, where they ended up through trade, ransom, or plundering. Finds in continental Europe, on the other hand, are usually limited to isolated finds in riverbeds.

Swords from the 8th to 10th centuries are also called "Carolingian swords", while the swords from the late Viking Age and the early High Middle Ages (late 10th to early 12th century) transition into the category of Norman swords or the early development of the arming sword.

During the Viking Age, the Carolingian Empire was the center of advanced sword production. This area supplied the best weapons found in Central and Northern Europe.

During the reign of  Charlemagne, the price of a sword with scabbard was set at seven solidi (approximately 1300 dollars). Swords were still relatively expensive weapons, though not as exclusive as in the Merovingian era. In the laws of Charlemagne, it was stipulated that only members of the cavalry, who could afford a warhorse, were required to own a sword. According to Regino's chronicle, by the end of the 9th century, the sword was seen as the primary weapon of the cavalry. This emphasizes that swords around this time were exclusively available to the aristocracy. Within Viking society, only the classes of Jarls (aristocrats) had a sword and some Karls (free farmers). It is not surprising that Frankish armies had more access to the acquisition of swords than the Vikings, who depended on trade and plundering for this. Nevertheless, there are few references to sword production in the Carolingian period, apart from a mention of emundatores vel politores (grinders and polishers) working in the workshops of the Abbey of Saint Gall. Two men sharpening swords, one with a grindstone and the other with a file, are also depicted in the Utrecht Psalter.

An important aspect in the development of European swords between the early and high Middle Ages was the availability of high-quality steel. During the Migration Period and the early Middle Ages, sword blades were mainly made using the technique of pattern welding (also known as “false Damascus steel”). Large pieces of steel of sufficient quality to forge an entire blade were rare in Europe and usually came via import from Central Asia, where a cast steel industry emerged from the 8th century. After the year 1000, swords with cast steel blades became more frequent. The group of Ulfberht swords shows a wide range in steel types and forging techniques. For example, a specimen from a 10th-century grave in Nemilany (Moravia) had a core of pattern welding with welded, hardened edges. Another specimen appeared to be made of high-quality hypo eutectoid steel, possibly imported from Central Asia.

The sword gradually replaced the sax in the late 8th and early 9th century. Because in the Frankish lands in the 8th century no more grave goods were included, continental finds are largely limited to riverbeds (where oxygen-poor conditions preserved the steel). Most preserved Carolingian swords originate from graves of northern or eastern cultures, where pagan burial rituals were still common. For the Carolingian Franks, swords were absolutely a status symbol and a sign of aristocracy. Although they must have been more accessible than the earlier Merovingian swords, which were often exceptionally luxuriously decorated.  

Viking swords were of high value in Norse culture because they were costly to make and represented a sign of high status. Owning a sword was a matter of great prestige. People of high status often owned richly decorated swords with silver embellishments and inlays. Most Viking warriors did not have a sword but fought with spear and axe. Still, it can be expected that for the average karl, just one raid would yield enough to afford a good blade. However, we must remember that Viking raids were primarily not intended to acquire swords and luxury goods, but were a way for young men to finance a dowry for their marriage. 

In the Laxdæla saga, a sword is mentioned that was valued at half a crown, which corresponded to the value of sixteen dairy cows. The crafting of such weapons was a specialized craft, and many blades were imported from abroad, such as the Rhineland. Forging a sword could take up to a month, and the weapons were of such high value that they were often passed down from generation to generation. 

Animism is the belief that objects, places, and beings possess a distinct spiritual identity. This means that not only people, but also animals, plants, stones, rivers, weather phenomena, and even human creations and words were considered to be animated. Each of these entities had its own consciousness and power. Before the advent of Christianity, all European cultures were animistic. This animism originated from the Proto-Indo-European origin of our ancestors. The Vikings attributed an animistic significance to objects such as looms, spears, and swords, giving these objects their own animistic identity. The older a sword was, the more valuable it was considered. 

Local blacksmiths often provided imported blades with richly decorated hilts. Many swords were given names, such as Leg Biter and Gold Grip. In various sagas, it is described that swords even possessed magical powers. The importance of swords in Norse culture is also evident from the practice of "killing" swords. This involved bending the blade, making the sword unusable. This act likely had both a ritual and practical function: Vikings were often buried with their weapons, and "killing" a sword could discourage grave robbers from stealing such a valuable weapon. Archaeological finds of bent or shattered swords confirm this practice. The animistic worldview of the Vikings ensures that we place grave goods in a different context. Not every sword given was used by the deceased. Some were given to children, and sometimes they represented magic or aristocracy. 

The spread of Frankish blades throughout Scandinavia and even to Volga Bulgaria shows the great importance of Frankish arms exports. Yet, Carolingian kings tried to restrict this trade. In 864, Charles the Bald even imposed the death penalty for selling weapons to the Vikings. The Arab traveler Ibn Fadlan explicitly noted in the 10th century that the Volga Vikings wore Frankish swords. In 869, during a Saracen attack on the Camargue, the attackers demanded 150 swords as ransom for Archbishop Rotland of Arles.

Foreign-made weapons and armor – especially Frankish – played a special role in Norse society. Vikings acquired them through trade (often as part of the gift-giving practice within Norse culture) or through raiding. Owning and displaying such a weapon clearly reflected one's social position and political ties. The Scandinavians' preference for foreign weapons and armor had a practical reason: Norse designs were outdated, and local iron sources were of poor quality. The most important Viking weapons were also richly decorated with gold and silver. Such precious metals were not produced in Scandinavia but imported, and later inlaid in the pommels and blades of weapons, often in geometric patterns, animal figures, and later also Christian symbols. From the mid-9th century, these high-quality weapons flowed into Scandinavia, making Frankish weapons the standard for the Vikings. Ahmad ibn Fadlan wrote that every Viking carried a "sword of Frankish type".

The Franks actively tried to prevent Vikings from using their weapons and armor. They feared that they would eventually face enemies who were as well-armed as they were. In 811, the Capitulare Bononiense prohibited clergy from supplying swords or armor to non-Frankish persons. Such laws were common, and in 864, Charles the Bald made trading weapons with foreigners officially punishable by death. 

Pattern welding fell out of use in the 9th century because steel of better quality became available. Better steel also allowed for narrower blades, and the swords of the 9th century therefore showed a stronger tapering towards the point than their 8th-century predecessors. This shifted the center of gravity closer to the grip. Viking swords had a blade that tapered more sharply than that of the Merovingian spatha. They featured a broad fuller, which reduced weight but maintained the quality of the weapon. The sword had a distinctive grip, one or two crossguards, and a pommel. The Frankish swords often had a pommel consisting of three or five rounded lobes. This was a typical Frankish development that did not exist before the 8th century. The lobes were attached to the upper crossguard, forming a broader pommel as we recognize in Medieval swords. The design is often seen in the art of that time, for example, in the Stuttgart Psalter, Utrecht Psalter, Lothar Gospels, and Bern Psychomachia manuscripts, as well as in murals in the church of Mals in South Tyrol.

Some Viking swords have a blade that was provided with inscriptions. This was also a Frankish innovation that arose during the reign of Charlemagne. A well-known example is the Ulfberht blades. This tradition continued into the high Middle Ages and reached a peak in the 12th century. While blade inscriptions became more common during the Viking Age, the custom of decorating the grip with precious metals—adopted from the Merovingian spatha and widespread in the 8th and 9th centuries—declined in the 10th century. Most swords made in the late 10th century in the Holy Roman Empire still conformed to the “viking sword” type in shape but had simple hilts.

The Ulfberht swords form a transition between Viking swords and the later knight swords. Most have blades of Oakeshott type X. They are also the starting point of the rich medieval tradition of blade inscriptions. The back of the blades often features geometric patterns, mostly braid motifs, although many blades with such patterns do not bear a Ulfberht inscription. Within the Ulfberht group, production methods varied greatly. The Ulfberht swords likely originated in the Rhineland. The Frankish origin is assumed due to the name "Ulfberht." However, most found specimens come from Northern Europe. They were likely traded, captured, claimed as ransom, or illegally exported. Three specimens have been found in Volga Bulgaria, along the important trade route there. In total, 167 Ulfberht swords are known, especially from Scandinavia and the Baltic region. The original Ulfberht type dates from the 9th or 10th century, but swords with the Ulfberht inscription were made until the end of the Viking Age in the 11th century. A late example, found in East Germany and dated to the 11th or early 12th century, is notable because it bears both the Ulfberht signature and a Christian inscription: in nomine domini (+IINIOMINEDMN). The personal name Wulfbert (Old High German: Wolfbert, Wolfbrecht, Wolfpert, Wolfperht, Vulpert) is known from the 8th to 10th century.

Carolingian scabbards are made from wood and leather. Decorations of scabbards are depicted in various manuscripts, such as the Stuttgart Psalter, the Utrecht Psalter, and the Vivian Bible. Miniatures also show how the sword was worn using the sword belt. Although the scabbards and belts themselves have rarely been preserved, metal fittings have been found in Scandinavian silver hoards and Croatian graves.

A complete set seemed to consist of two to three oval or half-oval fittings, a large belt end, a buckle closure, and a trefoil attachment. 

The main research on this subject was conducted by Jan Petersen (De Norske Vikingsverd, 1919). Petersen created the first typology of sword hilts, with 26 types. This is still widely used in Europe to classify and date Viking swords. It is based on approximately 1,700 finds of Viking swords in Norway. His types are denoted by the letters A–Z. Petersen described a total of 110 specimens from Norway: 40 were double-edged, 67 single-edged, and 3 were not clearly determinable. Later, several other scientists further developed Petersen's work.
R. E. M. Wheeler (1927): made a simplified typology of sword hilts on basic from British finds, combining Petersen's s typology with a blade typology. He distinguished 9 types (I–IX).

Oakeshott (1960): added two extra types to Wheeler's s scheme, to clarify the transition between Viking swords and later medieval swords.

Geibig (1991): introduced an additional typology based on the shape of blades (types 1–14) and pommels (types 1–17, with subtypes), focusing on swords from the 8th to 12th century in East Francia. This also covered the transition from Viking swords to knightly swords.

Oakeshott (1991): mainly dealt with swords from the period after the Viking Age. He classified all Viking swords as type X.
Jakobsson (1992): published maps showing the distribution of Petersen's s hilt types across Europe. His conclusions are discussed in Ian Peirce's s Swords from the Viking Age.

Peirce (2002): provided an overview of typologies and a discussion of inscriptions on blades. He presented a catalog of 85 complete or nearly complete swords and compared these with Petersen's s findings.

The swords from the Viking Age are usually classified based on basic of the shape and decoration of the hilt. This is where the most variation can be found, and changes are most clearly visible here. The shape of the blade also changed over time, but this often happened slowly and without clear boundaries. The making of blades occurred in fewer workshops than the making of hilts, resulting in more standardization among the blades. Sometimes certain hilt shapes correspond to certain blade types, but this is not always the case. There are even examples of old blades that were later fitted with a more modern hilt.

At first glance, there seems to be an endless variety of Viking hilts. Yet they all have much in common: a one-handed grip, a simple crossguard, or an upper part consisting of a small pommel. 

Petersen described dozens of types, each with their own characteristics. Types that were less common or did not fit well into his scheme, he called særtyper (special types).

Type A (ca. 750–850)

One of the earliest types. Large, rounded pommel with three lobes and a short, straight crossguard. Simple and massive. Found mainly in Norway and Denmark.

Similar to A but slimmer. The pommel has a more pronounced central lobe. The crossguard is slightly longer and is often more richly decorated. This type was popular in the early Viking Age.

The sword had a distinctive wide, flat pommel with three sharp separated lobes. The crossguard was short, wide, and flat. This type of sword was widespread in Scandinavia.

The pommel had three lobes, often with decorative inlays, with the middle lobe projecting strongly forward. The crossguard was somewhat more elegant and longer. This type was often found in Norway.

The pommel was compact, usually a single rounded piece with slight thickenings. The crossguard was short and thick, often simple and functional in design.

The pommel was heavy, triple-lobed, horizontal, and broad. The crossguard was short and straight. The sword was robust and relatively simple in design, typical of Viking swords.

The knob had a more elegant three-lobed shape, with the middle lobe being clearly larger. The crossguard was slimmer and sometimes curved. The sword was often richly decorated with silver or copper inlay.

The pommel was wide and had three lobes, with the middle lobe almost as large as the side lobes. The crossguard was wide and flat. This type was common in Norway and Sweden.

The pommel was single and wide, without distinct lobes, sometimes slightly rounded or angular. The crossguard was short and bent towards the blade. This type was common in Sweden.

This type resembled type I, but was often more angular. The pommel was wide and thick, the crossguard short and robust. It was common in Finland and the Baltic region.

The pommel consisted of five parts (five-lobed) and was sometimes beautifully decorated with inlay. The crossguard was wide and short. This type was popular in the Rhineland and adjacent areas.

The pommel had a triangular or pyramid shape, often hollow inside. The crossguard was short and thick. The sword had a sleek design, typical of the late Viking Age.

The pommel was oval or nearly round, often flat. The crossguard was simple and straight. The sword was simple but effective and was commonly found in Scandinavia.

The pommel was angular, trapezoidal, or block-shaped. The crossguard was short and often heavy. The sword had a compact style, typical of the late Viking Age.

The pommel was wide and rectangular, sometimes featuring a horizontal division. The crossguard was straight and wide. This type was known in the eastern regionss, including Russia.

The pommel was small, round or pear-shaped. The crossguard was short and thick. The sword was often simply executed and popular in Scandinavia.

The pommel was elongated, almost 'helmet'-shaped. The crossguard was simple and straight. This type was mainly found in the eastern regions and England.

The pommel was broad and massive, often triangular or trapezoidal. The crossguard was short. The sword had a compact style, typical of the late Viking Age.

The pommel consisted of multiple stacked discs, usually three. The crossguard was thick and short, and the sword was richly decorated. This type was mainly found in Denmark and England.

The pommel was wide and round, disc-shaped. The crossguard was short and usually simple. This type was found throughout Europe.

The pommel was oval or egg-shaped, sometimes strongly arched. The crossguard was simple and often straight. This type was mainly found in Eastern Europe.

The pommel was broad and trapezoidal, sometimes slanted. The crossguard was short and solid. This type was relatively rare.

The pommel was cylindrical or rod-shaped and horizontally placed. The crossguard was short. The sword had a unique appearance and was mainly found in Eastern Europe.

The pommel was singular and wide, disc-shaped and usually flat. The crossguard was straight and relatively long. This type is considered a transition to the medieval knight swords and was very widespread.

The pommel was triangular or pyramid-shaped, but smaller and simpler than type L. The crossguard was straight. This type was mainly found in Eastern Europe.

The pommel was round or pear-shaped, often small. The crossguard was short and simple. This type was common in Scandinavia and England.

This was the last viking sword type. The pommel was large, disc-shaped, often thick and heavy. The crossguard was long and straight. The type formed a transition to the true knight swords of the 11th century.

Most Viking swords had double-edged blades, but there were also single-edged examples. These seem to have originated from the scramasax (a large knife from the Migration Period). They were mainly found in Western and Central Norway.

These blades were often longer than the double-edged variants, sometimes up to 85–90 cm. They were usually locally made, often without intricate decorations or damask patterns, although exceptions are known. They were known to be somewhat heavier and thicker, but their balance point was surprisingly close to that of double-edged swords.