Men in the Viking World

Gender was very defining for the lives of people in The Viking Age. Viking men were judged on how well they adhered to these expectations. Those who did not behave "correctly" could face problems. But, what were their ‘rules’?

Our modern views on gender are very different from the Old Norse worldview. Gender revolves around how someone behaves in society. The sex someone is born with plays an important role in this, but it is certainly not the only component.

Every society has its own ideas about how men and women must behave and express their identity. The interpretation of what was considered 'queer' also differs per societal structure.

Throughout history, this has been no different. People in the Viking Age thought differently about gender than we do now: that's why we need to look at how gender was viewed at that time, and not impose our own ideas on it. We still do not know everything about gender in the Viking Age, so this text can be considered indicative. 

To understand Viking society, it is necessary to understand the Germanic and Indo-European cultures. Characteristic cultural traits of the Proto-Indo-European steppe herders who migrated from the Pontic-Caspian steppe to Europe around 3500 BC can be recognized in the structure of Viking society.

In short, the dharmic Old Norse religion, like other Proto-Indo-European religions, was seen as the eternal struggle between cosmic order and chaos. This order protects the continuity of semi-small-scale social groups, where oath-bound , reciprocal relationships were central. This can be seen, among other things, in the Indo-European principle of hospitality, where the word 'Ghost' can mean both guest and host. 

Reciprocity was also a central element of society. To sustain communities, complex networks of patron-client relationships and oath-bound reciprocity developed as early as 3500 BC on the Pontic-Caspian steppe. The Proto-Indo-European tradition spread to Europe, eventually evolving into the Old Norse society. The oath was central, just like the principle of hospitality, both in the hierarchy within war bands and in business agreements. Family ties also played a very important role.

The society of the Viking Age was thus organized in such a way that groups of people could live together, revered common ideals, and abhorred common misdeeds. From this perspective, these societies can be considered highly homogeneous, with relatively many similarities between, for example, the Roman, Germanic, and Celtic forms of society. Within the Indo-European society, the arrival of Christianity was the major divergent factor, although this Middle Eastern religion was also heavily infused with Indo-European rituals over the centuries, especially in Europe.

Old Norse societies were predominantly small and did not abhor violence. The government did not have a monopoly on violence. People lived in small communities, where chaos led to major conflicts that engulfed entire families. To survive in the harsh Scandinavian climate, a society had to cooperate more. There was a greater social pressure to be able to trust each other.

Vikings were exclusively from the fighting and ruling class (jarl & karl). Among these groups existed a third class, the thrall. Thralls were a type of serfs, who were bound to the land or the household.  They were seen as people, but not as legal persons (although they did have some form of legal protection). No attention was paid to them and they are only mentioned marginally in the sources. Social norms weighed less heavily on them, as their honor was not important to their position in society. Thus, this working class was not deemed worthy to participate in military activities; some were even slaves who were abducted and taken on raids. However, it is incorrect to position them solely as people of another ethnicity or as slaves. 

It must be taken into account that the Old Norse concept of truth was different from our modern perception of it. The 'truth' people lived with was not based on statistics and could regularly be bent to maintain order. This order was both societal and 'cosmic' for the Old Norse. Often the 'truth' was adjusted for the sake of this order. For example, you could expect a volva who had enjoyed your hospitality to predict a positive future for you, or a skald to compose a heroic poem about your life for a fee.

These distortions might also be seen in views on gender. Concessions were made to the ideal image if a person was beloved by society.

When a Viking boy reached the age of 6, he was further raised by foster parents. This tradition created a bond between both families. The child would maintain a connection with both his biological parents and his foster family for the rest of his life. Girls were married off from the age of 12. Arranged marriages were also part of forging alliances. If desired, a family secured its future in times of adversity.

To ensure that a family married off their daughter to a respectable (honorable) candidate, it was expected from the male side to provide a dowry and possess combat experience. This may have been a motivator for Viking raids just as it was a motivator for piracy in the Corded Ware culture 3500 BC. The dowry became the property of the bride and served as her insurance. In case of the man's misconduct, she could divorce him, retaining the right to the dowry. Compare this to the expectation that a man should provide a house for the woman he wishes to marry.

Viking marriages were rarely out of love and were often entered into for underlying financial or familial reasons. Among the thralls, this may have occurred more frequently, as families had little to offer each other. However, the many guldgubbar kissing love couples suggest that these people must have indeed known love. Various Old Norse laws also acknowledge that some marriages fall apart and that divorce is the only outcome. 

In pop culture, there is the image that a beautiful young woman had to marry an ugly evil man, but this was far from the norm. Being evil or ugly lowered a man's status and thus his chance of a marriage partner. Abuse within marriage was not tolerated in society. It gave a woman the right to divorce and often led to honor revenge by her family. 

Within this patriarchal culture, the role of the father was not limited to being the breadwinner of the family. His decisions were largely decisive, but the advice he received from his wife played a prominent role. Children had to listen to their parents, and parents had to be wise and able to be asked for advice. This was especially true for the mother, as wisdom and intelligence were considered the main virtues of a woman.

The Viking society preferred a strict, binary division between men and women. This is clearly seen in the concept of friðr and drengskapr. The world of women revolved mainly around the household, family, and community. Think of activities such as raising children, cooking, making textiles, and caring for animals, but also religion and magic. The world of men revolved more around fighting, traveling, trade, politics, and other activities outside the home and community.

Masculinity was particularly important among the Vikings. Men were constantly judged on their masculinity by society. This was a crucial factor for trust and determined the reputation of a man and his family.

Masculinity had a very different meaning for the Vikings than the way modern pop culture portrays it. Historian Gareth Lloyd Evans has written extensively about these unique ideas of masculinity in Old Norse society, and we have mainly based this blog on his work. To better understand what was considered 'true masculinity' by the Vikings, we can list traits that were important in the Viking Age. A man had to exhibit certain virtues, such as:

Men were expected to be strong and able fighters, but they also had to control their impulses and emotions (especially anger and fear). People lived in small communities where small-scale chaos could escalate, and any uncontrolled outburst was a threat to the survival of society. Every man represented a household and was part of a family that maintained oath-bound relationships with other families. For these reasons, it was not surprising that self-control was the most important virtue of all.

Self-control stood for order, while impulses and outbursts stood for chaos. Extreme bravado, anger outbursts, and random violence were therefore not tolerated.

If as a man you could not control yourself, you damaged the reputation of your entire family.  

Sexually promiscuous acts were a major threat. When a man and a married woman had an extramarital affair, it not only damaged their own reputations but also that of the man and the woman's family. This almost always led to honor revenge and was therefore a severe crime.

There is a small note attached to this: men did not have to remain monogamous. It elevated a man's status if he kept concubines in addition to his wife (with legal personality); this was even expected of Jarls. These women without legal personality would then live in the same house as his wife. The concubine had even less choice in this process; in some cases, she was even an abducted slave. In cases where the concubine came from the thrall class, this relationship offered her and her family protection and status, making it desirable to her family.

Beauty represented cosmic order while ugliness represented chaos and was therefore despised. This meant that a man had to have a well-groomed appearance, with a well-combed beard and hair. This emphasized his fertility and the good favor of the gods. Physical beauty was likely associated with inner beauty. 

It was necessary for a man to perform heroic deeds. These were honorable acts that protected and advanced his tribe. True men were not to show fear or be cowardly: they were expected to be strong, fight bravely, and keep their oath. As a warrior, the willingness to die was essential. Today, we see death as an unexpected incident in our quest for eternal life. For the Vikings, death was as much a part of life as birth. Dying a meaningless death in bed was called a straw death, which meant going to Helheim or even risking wandering as a zombie (draugar) in search of the afterlife. To live well as a man also meant dying honorably. Preferably in battle. Then you went to Valhalla. The dead remained part of the world of the living. Ancestors were revered and consulted for advice. The Old Norse belief in reincarnation emphasized that your ancestors return in your children. 

Men were not to try to shirk their tasks and responsibilities, or present themselves as pitiful and weak. Cunning or deceitful behavior was associated with the god Loki and symbolized chaos.

The higher a man's status, the more masculinity was expected. Men of lower social status did not have to display the same degree of masculinity as men with higher status. In cases where they did, it was considered remarkable.

The higher the status, the more masculinity was expected. Men of lower social status did not have to display the same degree of masculinity as men with higher status. In cases where they did, it was considered remarkable.

Bleeding and dying on the battlefield created a unique brotherhood among men. This bond played an important role in assessing one's masculinity. It fostered close relationships in both peace and wartime. Today, society is so far removed from its source that brotherhood among men is sometimes associated with homosexuality. However, this is a product of the modern consumer society and overlooks the fact that in Old Norse culture, their values, culture, and gods were seen as something worth fighting and dying for. 

Not all men with legal personality could meet these standards. Other factors, such as age and physical health, also played a role. Young men, for example, had to wait for the growth of a beard to be seen as truly masculine. Older men could sometimes lose their masculinity, but Evans says this was not only due to age but also due to social status.

Men who were injured could lose their masculinity. This was because they could no longer fight and thus lost their role as warriors. Evans notes that men with disabilities were not necessarily seen as inferior, but they were limited in their social possibilities. Especially back injuries were associated with cowardice: it was seen as the mark of a warrior who had fled the battlefield. People with congenital defects usually did not survive childhood. 

The standards for male behavior could lead to major problems. In the Grettis saga Ásmundarsonar For example, it is shown how extreme masculinity can negatively shape a character. Grettir was so focused on displaying masculinity that he began to dominate his father to prove himself: something that was completely against the cosmic order. For this reason, the virtue of self-control was so important among the Vikings.

Evans notes that exaggerated masculinity can lead to social disruption and problems within society. This behavior could result in exile from the community, blood feuds, or vendettas as a consequence. 

In contrast to masculine women, there was even less acceptance for effeminate men.  A man was quickly labeled as effeminate, even because he had insufficient beard growth. The sources barely mention men taking on female tasks as women sometimes did, but they do provide examples that their partners sometimes encouraged them to do so. As in the Laxdæla saga where Guðrún Ósvífsdóttir swaps her baby for her husband's sword, thereby stripping her husband of his masculinity and even forcing him to fulfill a female role. 

An effeminate man was called an ‘ergi’  called, from which the word 'erg' is derived. A man who was anally penetrated was called a níð, which can be associated with the word 'humiliate'. The Gragas laws meticulously describe which garments a man and which a woman should wear. This emphasizes the societal taboo. Female or male behavior by the opposite sex was a reason for divorce in the laws; the same applied to infertility or impotence. Therefore, these laws may emphasize that it was dangerous for small vulnerable communities if something led to a reduction in birth rates.

Despite this negative connotation, it appears that the 'order' on this subject had some flexibility. Archaeological evidence shows the grave in Klinta Oland and Portway Andover in which, in both cases, a man was buried in women's clothing and female accessories. This emphasizes that despite the stigma, effeminate men were not socially ostracized in some cases and were probably even respected. A similar exceptional situation is seen in the grave of Suontaka. It is unknown whether the people in these graves merely wore female clothing or if they also identified as women. Furthermore, it seems that the statue of the Odin of Lejre depicting the god in women's clothing may indicate his association between crossdressing and seiđr. 

Among the Vikings, the idea of 'effeminate men' was often associated with men who took a passive role during homosexual sex. There was no concept of sexual identity: rather, people were concerned with the actions someone performed and the position someone took, 'active' or 'passive'. Literary sources make little mention of homosexuality, and the handful of remarks are notably negative toward the passive partner, indicating a fear existed here. It is unclear whether this attitude was limited to penetration or also applied to other homosexual acts. 

In Viking society, there was a taboo against men being penetrated.  This possibly had a ritual origin, where the Vikings believed it was a female role to be able to enter shamanistic ecstasy during religious rituals, thus being 'penetrated' by the gods or spiritual forces and functioning as a catalyst between the gods and us mortals. There was also a taboo on men engaging with magic, as this was strongly associated with women in the same way. In the saga, Odin is sometimes insulted by other gods for ergi because he engaged in the practice of seidr.

The term ergi specifically referred to a man who took a passive role during homosexual sex. This was a very serious insult for the Vikings: falsely accusing someone of ergi was legally equivalent to severe physical assault, just like slapping a man on the buttocks. According to the law, both were punished with banishment from society, the highest type of punishment the Vikings knew. Additionally, the man who was insulted could challenge the other to a holmgang and it was even allowed for him to kill someone if they unjustly accused him of ergi. 

That a man was homosexual did not mean that he performed female actions, or lacked his male social obligations both indoors and outdoors. The masculinity of the active partner was never questioned, but he was seen as someone who neglected his 'duty' to the community to obtain children. The strong division between active and passive homosexual men was not unique to the Vikings. We know, for example, that among the Greeks and Romans, the taboo was mainly focused on high-status men who took on a passive role with other men, while it was tolerated or even expected of them to play the active role.

Most people in the Viking Age adhered to fixed gender roles, but this was not the case for everyone. There are many stories of people who did not meet these expectations, and there is evidence that in some cases dynamics within gender roles were accepted. Scholars have therefore investigated whether alternative gender systems existed in the Viking Age, but most of these are very speculative. 

In addition, there is limited consideration of the fact that the class of unfree thralls consisted of both men and women, with men from this class also being subordinate to women from the classes of Jarls and karls. It is therefore important to realize that besides sex and gender expression, a person's status also greatly influenced which roles he or she fulfilled in society. 

The Viking society was not a rigid society where nothing outside the norm was accepted, but also not a utopia for people who did not adhere to social guidelines. There was more acceptance for masculine women than for feminine men. However, behaving differently did not immediately mean you were banished from society: the boundaries of socially acceptable behavior were flexible. 

The most important factor was probably what you contributed to the small community in which you lived. From that perspective, one should not look so much at gender or sexual orientation but at someone's healthy social conduct. Probably, the societal disgust for infidelity, passive-aggressive, deceitful, or Machiavellian behavior was much greater than for gender expression or sexual orientation that fell outside the norm. If a homosexual man had a wife and children but also kept a male lover who in turn also had a wife and children, then no one was bothered by that.

Primarily, honorable deeds were central to the life of Viking men. This could only be achieved by welcoming death during a heroic act rather than seeing it as an unfortunate accident.