Women in the Viking World

Gender was very decisive for the lives of people in The Viking Age. Viking women were judged on how well they adhered to these expectations. Those who did not behave "correctly" could encounter problems. But what were their ‘rules’?

Our modern views on gender are very different from the Old Norse worldview. Gender revolves around how someone behaves in society. The sex someone is born with plays an important role, but it is certainly not the only component.

Every society has its own ideas about how men and women should behave and express their identity. The interpretation of what was considered ‘queer’ also varies per societal structure.

Throughout history, this has been no different. People in the Viking Age thought differently about gender than we do now: therefore, we must look at how gender was viewed at that time, and not impose our own ideas on it. We still do not know everything about gender in the Viking Age, therefore this text can be considered indicative. 

To understand Viking society, it is necessary to understand the Germanic and Indo-European cultures. Characteristic cultural traits of the Proto-Indo-European steppe herders who migrated from the Pontic-Caspian steppe to Europe around 3500 BC can be recognized in the structure of Viking society.

In short, the dharmic Old Norse religion, like other Proto-Indo-European religions, was seen as the eternal struggle between cosmic order and chaos. This order protects the continuity of semi-small-scale social groups, where oath-bound, reciprocal relationships were central. This can be seen, among other things, in the Indo-European hospitality principle, where the word 'Ghost' can mean both guest and host. 

Reciprocity was also a central element of society. To sustain communities, complex networks of patron-client relationships and oath-bound reciprocity had already developed on the Pontic-Caspian steppe around 3500 BC. . The Proto-Indo-European tradition spread to Europe, and from this, the Old Norse society eventually developed. The oath was central, as was the principle of hospitality, both in the hierarchy within warbands and in business agreements. Family ties also played a very important role.

The society of the Viking Age was thus organized in such a way that groups of people could live together, revered common ideals, and abhorred common misdeeds. From this perspective, these societies can be considered highly homogeneous, and there are relatively many similarities between, for example, the Roman, Germanic, and Celtic forms of society. Within the Indo-European society, the arrival of Christianity was the major deviant factor, although this Middle Eastern religion was also heavily infused with Indo-European rituals over the centuries, especially in Europe.

Old Norse societies were predominantly small and did not abhor violence. The government did not have a monopoly on violence. People lived in small communities where chaos led to major conflicts that engulfed entire families. To survive in the harsh Scandinavian climate, a society had to cooperate more. There was a greater societal pressure to be able to trust each other.

Vikings were exclusively from the warrior and ruling class (jarl & karl). Within these groups, there was a third class, the thrall. Thralls were a type of serf, bound to the land or household. They were seen as people, but not as legal persons (though they did have some form of legal protection). They were given no attention and are only mentioned peripherally in the sources. Social norms weighed less heavily on them, as their honor was not important for their position in society. Thus, this working class was not deemed worthy to participate in military activities; some were even slaves who had been abducted and taken on raids. However, it is incorrect to position them solely as people of different ethnicity or as slaves. 

It must be considered that the Old Norse concept of truth was different from our modern understanding. The 'truth' people lived with was not based on statistics and could regularly be bent to maintain order. This order was both social and 'cosmic' for the Old Norse. Often, the 'truth' was adjusted for the sake of this order. For instance, you could expect a volva who had enjoyed your hospitality to predict a positive future for you, or a skald to compose a heroic poem about your life for a fee.

These distortions might also be seen in views on gender. Concessions were made to the ideal image if a person was beloved by the community.

When a Viking boy reached the age of 6, he was further raised by foster parents. This tradition created a bond between both families. The child would maintain a connection with both his biological parents and foster family for the rest of his life. Girls were married off from the age of 12. Arranged marriages were also part of forging alliances. If desired, a family secured its future in times of adversity.

To ensure a family married off their daughter to a respectable (honorable) candidate, it was expected from the male side to provide a dowry and possess combat experience. This might have been a motivator for Viking raids just as it was a motivator for piracy in the Corded Ware Culture 3500 BC. The dowry became the bride's property and served as her insurance. In case of the man's misconduct, she could divorce him, retaining the right to the dowry. Compare this to the expectation that a man should provide a house if he wants to marry the woman.

Viking marriages were rarely out of love and were often entered into for underlying financial or familial reasons. Among the thralls, this may have occurred more frequently, as families had little to offer each other. However, the many guldgubbar kissing love couples show that these people must have known love. Various Old Norse laws also acknowledge that some marriages break down and that divorce is the only outcome. 

In pop culture, there is the image that a beautiful young woman had to marry an ugly evil man, but this was far from the norm. Being evil or ugly lowered a man's status and thus his chance of finding a spouse. Abuse within marriage was not tolerated in society. It gave a woman the right to divorce and often led to honor revenge by her family. 

Within this patriarchal culture, the father's role was not limited to being the breadwinner of the family. His decisions were largely decisive, but the advice he received from his wife played a prominent role. Children had to listen to their parents, and parents had to be wise and able to be consulted for advice. This was especially true for the mother, as wisdom and intelligence were considered the most important virtues of a woman.

Viking society preferred a strict, binary division between men and women. This is clearly seen in the concept of friðr and drengskapr . The world of women revolved mainly around the household, family, and community. Think of activities such as raising children, cooking, making textiles, and caring for animals, but also religion and magic. The world of men was more about fighting, traveling, trade, politics, and other activities outside the home and community.

Women were expected to behave in certain ways. For example, according to societal expectations, they had to be obedient to their husbands. Yet, many women wielded power through their husbands or as widows: being assigned a certain role did not mean they were strictly bound to it. Women often cleverly maneuvered through these expectations. Some scholars like Anne-Sofie Gräslund argue that marriage in the Viking Age was a kind of partnership, in which both the man and the woman played important roles. 

This idea helps us understand that the relationship between men and women was far removed from our modern concept of equality, but was much more complex and culturally determined than a simple and fixed subordinate position for women. Jóhanna Katrín Friðriksdóttir states that Viking women played a major role in trade, running a farm and household, and could survive well without men.

At the end of the twentieth century, there was increasing scientific research into the role of women in the Viking Age. Examples include Judith Jesch's’s Women in the Viking Age and Jenny Jochens' Women in Old Norse Society . These books examined the role of women from a supplementary lens and led to a stereotypical image of the 'strong Viking woman'. However, most Viking women do not fit this stereotype, and their lives were more determined by female norms.

Additionally, it does not take into account the ritual tradition of the warrior class, where participation in battle is inextricably linked to the desire to die honorably on the battlefield. This latter stands in contrast to female virtues such as raising offspring. 

Because femininity was not socially assessed in the same way as masculinity, it was less often seen as a threat. Within Viking society, there were strict requirements women had to meet to be considered truly feminine. The laws also make it clear that men can divorce women who wore men's clothing or cut their hair short. 

This was seen as an important trait. Women often gave counsel and advice to men. In the Íslendingasögur, for example, women played a significant role in helping men make decisions. We also see this in the Völsunga saga and the Hávamál, where the word horskr (‘wise’) often appears to describe women. Running a farm and family can be compared to running a modern business: while the man worked outside, it was likely that the woman was actually the CEO.

Sexual chastity was a universal virtue and had to be followed by both men and women. The word ‘mannengek’ could be used as an insult for women who were seen as unfaithful. This shows how important sexual fidelity was in Viking culture. Freyja, a goddess, sometimes faced this in stories like the Þrymskviða. Infidelity caused disruption in the fragile society and was despised by both genders. It caused feuds and acts of revenge. As a result, both unfaithful men and women could be killed.

A woman was expected to have children from her husband. In Norway, Viking women likely had a child about every thirty months. This pattern was seen in various parts of the Viking world. Women who had children often remarried after the death of their husband. The idea of ‘monstrous’ female figures in myths shows how important motherhood was and how women who failed in this were viewed negatively. On the other hand, impotence in men was also seen as a reason for a woman to divorce her husband.

The world of the Vikings was very harsh and half of the children did not survive their youth. Having many children was therefore necessary for communities to avoid extinction. This may have been a reason to take concubines and abduct people during raids.

This was an important and powerful position. An inscription from Hassmyra, Sweden, shows this with the following text: "The good farmer Holmög had this stone placed in memory of Hassmyra Odendisa, his wife. She will be remembered as a good housewife who runs the farm." In some Viking communities, this role was even symbolized by wearing keys at the belt.

This was not only important in the lives of women but also an essential part of the economy around the North Atlantic Ocean. Making textiles was not only seen as domestic work, but also as a means of trade. Pieces of fabric, such as vaðmál, could for instance be used as a means of payment. Textile production was probably the most gender-specific work in the Viking Age and offered a way for women to express themselves creatively. Materials for textile processing were often found in the graves of women from different social classes, showing how important this work was. Even young girls were encouraged to participate in textile industry.

Femininity was associated as a catalyst between mortals and the gods, and therefore the hostess had a sacred function. They played a central role in the exchange of gifts and the hosting of feasts. For religious roles indoors, it was the woman who fulfilled the role of priestess. Priestesses played an essential role in religious ceremonies. It was considered unmanly if a man fulfilled this role. This may originate from the shamanistic ritual where the priestess enters a trance and is 'penetrated' by a spiritual force or god. Young women were employed as servants of the gods and performed fertility rituals for agriculture. 

Due to the luxurious nature of the Oseberg ship burial in Norway, it is believed that some women held influential positions. The items in the grave showed that these women were engaged in important tasks such as food production and religious rituals. This may be an example of how Viking women could have power, perhaps even unconsciously.

Just like with masculinity, other factors of identity also influenced femininity. As women aged, they lost access to certain aspects of femininity, such as the ability to have children. Social status also played a role: women of higher status could focus more on artistic tasks such as embroidery and tapestry making, while women of lower status had to focus more on practical textile work like weaving.

Ultimately, the lives of women were largely controlled by men, just as men controlled each other on masculinity. Within the patriarchal society, men had the ultimate authority to determine whether women fulfilled their societal expectations.

Just like men, women could cause conflict within the community. The main examples of unwanted behavior were dishonor, promiscuity, unreliability, carelessness, and Machiavellian behavior. This behavior caused trouble for the woman, her husband, and also her parental family. Words like Trollkona (troll-woman), Skass or Skessa (troll or giantess) associate these women with chaos, as trolls, like Loki, stood for chaos and manipulation. 

Society was based on a belief system in which chaos led to Ragnarok. People who caused this kind of chaos were seen within the Viking worldview as a cosmic threat and were therefore expelled from the community. 

Some Viking women took on ‘male’ tasks, responsibilities, or roles. This idea of the ‘strong Viking woman’ has long been very fascinating for both scholars and pop culture. Often their masculinity was emphasized when they performed male tasks. However, women could perform certain modern ‘male’ tasks without being seen as masculine in Viking society.  Women made contracts, engaged in trade, and owned property themselves. Additionally, there were women who went to fight or became poets (skalds). 

Although men inherited more often, a woman could sometimes also inherit land and become a wealthy landowner. It was possible that in the absence of male heirs, it was acceptable for an aristocratic family for the woman to engage in martial activities, or women were taught martial arts as a form of self-protection. Despite the norm that man and woman lived together, it also happened that many women remained independent and that this did not cause a loss of status. 

It occurred that women clearly displayed Old Norse ‘masculinity’. In the Laxdaela saga, Auðr's husband divorced her because she wore a trousers. This small act of gender transition was already sufficient reason to legally divorce. Evans says: "she is not a man, and yet she is perceived as such." This means that Auðr appears as a man in the eyes of others, but remains a woman. This shows that femininity is often seen as the opposite of masculinity. 

A well-known example of female masculinity in the Viking Age is the shieldmaiden. It is not certain whether these female warriors really existed; much has long been debated about this by historians and other researchers. However, stories about shieldmaidens are common in sagas and myths, especially in the fornaldarsögur. In these stories, shieldmaidens take on the role of a warrior: they wear weapons, dress like warriors, and exhibit traits that mark them as masculine in society. Additionally, graves have been found with female skeletons containing weapons and other warrior symbols, such as the grave Bøda. 

One of the best-known examples of a shieldmaiden is Hervǫr/Hervarðr from the Hervarar saga ok Heiðreks. As a child, she preferred playing with weapons over textiles and later chose to inherit a sword from her father's grave. She became the leader of a group of Vikings, adopted the male name Hervarðr, and dressed as a man. Scholars have various ideas about her identity. Clover suggests that within the saga, she effectively functions as a son because, as the only heir, she could take over her family's possessions and thus had to assume a male role.

Hervǫr/Hervarðr is not the only example of a woman perceived as male. A famous case is grave Bø 581 in Birka, Sweden. For a long time, scientists believed this to be the grave of a male warrior. But DNA analysis shows that the body in the grave was biologically female. Researchers still debate: was this person truly a female warrior, as archaeologists claim? Or do we not understand gender and status in the Viking Age well enough? Although there may never be a definitive answer, the fact remains that, among others, this woman was buried with weapons and other items typically found with male warriors. 

Most people in the Viking Age adhered to fixed gender roles, but this was not true for everyone. There are many stories of people who did not meet these expectations, and there is evidence that in some cases, dynamics within gender roles were accepted. Scholars have therefore investigated whether alternative gender systems existed in the Viking Age, but most of these are highly speculative. 

Additionally, limited consideration is given to the fact that the class of the unfree thralls consisted of both men and women, with men from this class also being subordinate to women from the classes of Jarls and karls. It is therefore important to realize that besides sex and gender expression, a person's status greatly influenced the roles they fulfilled in society. 

The Viking society was not a rigid society where nothing outside the norm was accepted, but neither was it a utopia for people who did not adhere to social guidelines. There was more acceptance for masculine women than for feminine men. However, behaving differently did not mean you were immediately banished from society: the boundaries of socially acceptable behavior were flexible. 

The most important factor was what you contributed to the small community in which you lived. From that perspective, it is less about gender or sexual orientation and more about someone's healthy social conduct. Probably, the societal disdain for infidelity, passive-aggressive, backstabbing, or Machiavellian behavior was much greater than for gender expression or sexual orientation that fell outside the norm.