Hoplite spears

In this blog, we delve into one of the most fascinating types of weapons from European history. The spear. We limit ourselves to the various types of spears used by hoplites in the Greek antiquity. Before we do this, we place the spear in a broader Proto-Indo-European context. 

In antiquity, spears were more prominently a noble weapon than the sword: in various mythologies with a Proto-Indo-European origin, heroes and even gods are primarily associated with the spear. For example, the spear was the favorite weapon of (war) gods such as Odin, Lugh, Ares, Athena, and Mars, and spears played an important symbolic role in these cultures. 

These mythologies featured many legendary spears used by gods and heroes. In Celtic mythology, the Irish god Lugh, an important figure in the Tuatha Dé Danann, is mentioned as possessing a magical spear known as one of the four treasures of Ireland. Cú Chulainn fought with the Gáe Bolg, a deadly spear that, according to legends, could unfold and always inflicted fatal injuries. In Norse mythology, Gungnir is the spear of the god Odin. This spear is known for always hitting its target, regardless of the skill of the one who throws it. In Greek mythology, Athena is almost always depicted with her spear, Achilles, the hero of the Iliad, carries a spear made of ash wood, forged by the god Hephaestus, and the lightning bolts of Zeus and the trident of Poseidon can be seen as forms of spears. 

The broad and important symbolic meaning of spears in the cultures to which these myths belonged is most clearly seen in ancient Rome; here, the fetiales would throw a blood-stained hasta into enemy territory to declare war. A spear without a point (hasta pura) was also awarded as a military distinction to experienced centurions (primipilus). Spears not only had a meaning related to warfare; the celibaris-hasta was traditionally used to cut a bride's hair. In trade and judiciary, a spear often marked the beginning of transactions (subhastationes) or was present at the court (hasta centumviralis). 

The doru was the most important spear of the hoplites in ancient Greece. The word doru is first mentioned in the Iliad and Odyssey of Homer, where it has the meanings "wood" and "spear". The heroes in the Homeric epic always carry two dorata (Il. 11,43, Od. 1,256). In classical antiquity, the doru was a symbol of military power. This can be inferred from expressions such as "Troy conquered by the spear" (Il. 16,708) and words like doryktetos ("won with the spear") and doryalotos ("taken with the spear")

The dory was approximately 2 to 3 meters long and had a wooden shaft with a diameter of 5 cm. The wood was usually made of ash wood, but also cornel, olive, and pine wood, and the weight of the spear varied from 0.91 to 1.81 kg. The spear head was flat and leaf-shaped, made of iron, and was balanced by an iron or bronze pointed butt cap. 

The pointed butt cap, the sauroter, was nicknamed 'salamander killer' because it could be used to fix the spear into the ground during the phalanx formation. This sauroter could also be used as a thrusting spear if the spear shaft was broken, or when fighting in loose formation. Additionally, it served as a counterweight, making the spear better balanced. In a phalanx formation, warriors in the rear rows could kill fallen enemies by holding their spears vertically and delivering downward thrusts while walking over the enemy

In the 6th century BC, hoplites often used two spears: a longer one for thrusting and a shorter one for throwing. This gave them an advantage in battle, as an enemy could already be weakened with javelins before the close combat began. Iconographic sources, such as vases and paintings, depict hoplites with spears of different lengths. The javelins were lighter and usually lacked a sauroter, making them more suitable as projectiles. The primary function of the doru was as a thrusting spear, but in case of necessity, it might also have been used for throwing; experiments with reconstructions show that the doru can be used with relatively good efficiency as javelin. Whether this was actually done is, however, a subject of scholarly debate; 

The Greeks developed the ankyle, a leather loop that was attached to the spear. This provided better grip and made it possible to throw the spear up to one and a half times further. This system was permanently attached to the spear, unlike lighter spears such as the akon, where the loop was removable. Modern experiments have confirmed the effectiveness of the ankyle, further emphasizing the use of the doru as a throwing weapon.

Although no complete dory's have been preserved, metal components such as spear heads and sauroters have been found. Additionally, ancient Greek vases, such as the famous Chigi vase, provide insight into how hoplites and their weapons were depicted. These images often show hoplites with double spears and the precise technique with which the spear was used.

The dory was transported in a case called ‘δορατοθήκη’ (doratotheke) or ‘δουροδοθήκη’ (douradotheke), which means "spear case". Sometimes it was also referred to as σύριγξ (syrinx), meaning "pipe", referring to the shape of the case.

In the 3rd or 4th century BC, a new type of spear developed from the dory: the sarissa. These spears were approximately 5 to 7 meters long and were introduced by Philip II of Macedonia (the father of Alexander the Great) to replace the shorter doru in the Macedonian phalanx. Thanks to the greater length of the spear, the striking power of the phalanx improved. Multiple rows of spears thrust simultaneously at the enemy, who was kept at a longer distance. These spears formed a nearly impenetrable wall at the front of the phalanx. The disadvantage of this tactic and the use of the sarissa, however, was that the Macedonian phalanx could hardly maneuver: thus the phalanx was vulnerable to flanking attacks. Therefore, the flanks were protected by elite hoplites, who were armed with the old dory. These elite troops were called the hypaspists , whose flanks in turn were protected by the Macedonian cavalry. Notably, the spears of the rear phalanges (hoplites in the Macedonian phalanx) were held up to block arrows and projectiles in this way. Additionally, each phalangite was equipped with a small shield that was fastened around the shoulder and arm, allowing both hands to be free to wield the sarissa. 

Under Alexander, the phalanx remained important, but during his later campaigns, he incorporated more Asian weapons and troops, which reduced the role of the sarissa. After Alexander, the sarissa remained an important weapon in the Hellenistic armies of the successors (Diadochi), such as the Antigonids, Seleucids, and Ptolemies. It was used in famous battles like Cynoscephalae (197 BC) and Pydna (168 BC).

The sarissa remained a symbol of Hellenistic warfare. During the Byzantine period, the term was sometimes used for long spears, and in the late Middle Ages, the concept of long pikes was revived by Swiss mercenaries and German Landsknechts. Medieval scholars who studied antiquity, such as the famous politician Niccolò Machiavelli, compared the Swiss pikemen to the Macedonian phalanx. The pikes from this period (5.6–6.7 meters) demonstrate that such weapons were practical and effective.

The sarissa consisted of a long wooden shaft and a metal tip. Sometimes a metal butt-spike was added, similar to the sauroter, allowing the spear to be planted into the ground without damaging the shaft. The shaft was made of ash wood (light and flexible) or cornel wood (shorter but stronger). There are various views on the size of the spear head of a sarissa. Some believe it was large and leaf-shaped, while others think a small, diamond-shaped point was better suited for penetrating shield and armor. Estimates of the weight vary. Some reconstructions suggest that the spear was relatively light, around 4 kg.