Introduction: Carthage

Carthage was founded around 814 BC by Phoenician colonists from Tyre (a city in present-day Lebanon). It began as a settlement in present-day Tunisia, grew into a powerful city-state, and later an empire, which reached its peak in 400 BC as one of the largest cities in the world. Carthage was the center of the Carthaginian Empire, which dominated the western and central Mediterranean.

The Phoenicians were a Semitic trading people who established trade colonies in the Mediterranean area between Syria and Lebanon and Tunisia modeled after the Greek model. Since the Phoenicians consisted of different city-states, which competed and sometimes differed from each other, the term Phoenicians can be seen as an overarching term. After the conquest of Phoenicia by the Neo-Assyrian Empire in 700 BC, Carthage became independent. 

Carthage expanded its influence through a network of colonies, vassal states, and allies, supported by its powerful fleet. Around 300 BC, the empire managed a vast area, including the northwest coast of Africa, parts of Spain, and islands such as Sicily, Sardinia, and Malta.

Carthage was one of the wealthiest cities of antiquity, thanks to a strategic location with access to fertile land and important trade routes. It exported agricultural products and luxury goods, supported by a strong fleet and a diverse army of mercenaries. The empire came to an end after the Punic Wars, when the Romans destroyed Carthage in 146 BC and later rebuilt it.

As a powerful ruler in the western Mediterranean, Carthage often came into conflict with its neighbors, such as the Berbers and the emerging Roman Empire. After centuries of struggle with the Greeks on Sicily, the rivalry with Rome escalated into the Punic Wars (264–146 BC), which included some of the largest battles of antiquity. Although Carthage escaped destruction after the Second Punic War, it was completely destroyed by the Romans in 146 BC after the Third Punic War. The city was later rebuilt by Rome and its civilization was fully absorbed into the Roman Empire, which thereby established its dominance in the Mediterranean region.

Carthage's culture remained rooted in its Canaanite heritage, a local variant known as Punic. It was an urban and commercial society focused on trade and seafaring, known for innovations such as mass production, uncolored glass, the threshing board, and the Cothon harbor. Carthage was renowned for its commercial spirit, ambitious explorations, and unique form of governance, which combined elements of democracy, oligarchy, and republicanism.

Compared to contemporaries such as Rome and Greece, much less is known about Carthage. Most native documents were lost during the destruction of the city after the Third Punic War. What is known comes from translations of Punic texts into Greek and Latin, Punic inscriptions on monuments and buildings, and archaeological findings.

The main sources about Carthage are works by Greek and Roman historians such as Livy, Polybius, Appian, Plutarch, and Herodotus. These writers came from cultures that were often rivals of Carthage: the Greeks because of Sicily and the Romans due to their struggle for control over the western Mediterranean. Their accounts are therefore often biased, especially those from the period around the Punic Wars, when Roman writers spread a negative image of Carthage.

The precise circumstances and date of the founding of Carthage are unknown. Greek and Latin writers themselves wrote a fitting fictional foundation myth. This myth exhibits many Proto-Indo-European characteristics, which tell more about the Greeks and Romans than about the Semitic Phoenicians.

According to their tradition, Carthage was founded by Phoenician colonists from Tyre, led by Princess Dido. Her brother, Pygmalion, had murdered her husband, the high priest Acerbas, for his power and wealth. Dido fled with her followers and founded Carthage, which under her rule grew into a prosperous city.

A famous part of the myth is how Dido acquired land in North Africa. The local Berber leader Iarbas offered her as much land as an oxhide could cover. Dido cut the hide into thin strips and encircled an entire hill, the Byrsa. During the excavation, her followers first found an ox head, a sign of wealth, and later a horse head, a symbol of fertility and victory. This became the symbol of Carthage, which was called Qart-Hadasht ("New City") in Punic.

In the mid-600s BC, Carthage became an independent city-state with a unique Punic (Phoenician) culture, strongly influenced by local traditions. Although the city continued to cherish Phoenician customs, new gods like Demeter became more important in their religion. Carthage maintained close ties with Tyre, sent migrants and tributes to the temple of Melqart, while simultaneously expanding its own power in the region.

In 600 BC, Tyre further lost power due to subjugation by the Persian king Cambyses. However, Tyre refused to cooperate in Cambyses' planned invasion of Carthage, giving the city a position of power. This led to Carthage's role as the dominant Phoenician power and the further growth of its trade empire.

Within a century of its founding, Carthage had a population of 30,000. It grew rapidly due to favorable agricultural opportunities, rich minerals, and an extensive trade network. While Tyre and Sidon (also a city in present-day Lebanon) lost power due to Babylonian sieges, Carthage developed into an independent and prosperous trading center. The city exported luxury goods such as jewelry, ivory, and wine and connected North Africa with trade routes to Cadiz, Sicily, and Greece.

At the height of its territorial power (264 BC, on the eve of the First Punic War), Carthage had influence over much of the western Mediterranean. This included:

• North Africa: including western Libya and parts of the Mauretanian coast.
• Islands: Sicily, Sardinia, the Balearics, Malta, the Aeolian and Pelagian islands.
• Iberian Peninsula: major settlements such as Gadèss (present-day Cádiz).
• Ancient Phoenician cities: such as Lixus (near Tangier), Mogador (Essaouira), and Utica.

Important Punic cities besides Carthage included Hadrumetum, Ruspina, Cartagena, and Hippo. The Phoenicians founded cities like Gadèss and Utica between the 12th and 10th centuries BC. Carthage itself was built on a peninsula, surrounded by lagoons, northeast of present-day Tunis. At its peak, the Carthaginian empire had a population of 3 to 4 million people.

The Carthaginian religion was polytheistic and revolved around various gods who each governed an aspect of nature or life. The main gods were Ba’al Hammon and Tanit. Ba’al Hammon, originally a Phoenician god, became the protector of Carthage and was associated with the fertility of the crops. His consort, Tanit, was seen as the goddess of war, protection, and fertility. She was the primary goddess of Carthage, and her symbol was found throughout the city.

Other important gods included Melqart, who became increasingly equated with the Greek Heracles and played a significant role in Carthaginian wars against Rome. Rituals were a major part of Carthaginian life, although we do not know many details. Inscriptions have been found referring to a festival, the Mayumas, likely a water ritual in honor of Tanit and Ba’al.

The Carthaginians believed in an afterlife. Graves often contained food and drink for the journey to the hereafter. What particularly provokes much discussion is the claim that Carthage practiced human sacrifice, especially children. Some ancient writers, such as Plutarch, claimed that the Carthaginians sacrificed children during times of war or crisis. Archaeological findings, such as the Tophet burial sites, support this narrative. Although this practice was widespread according to some sources, others doubt whether it occurred so frequently.

The Carthaginian religion was thus a mix of local and Phoenician influences, with much attention to gods who protected and provided for daily life. The belief in an afterlife and the rituals associated with it played an important role in their culture.

The society of Carthage was complex and advanced, comparable to that of Greek cities or Latin civitates. It was characterized by strong civic engagement, an active society, and clear social stratification. Inscriptions on Punic tombstones describe various professions, such as craftsmen, dockworkers, farmers, cooks, and potters, indicating a diversified economy that supported different lifestyles. Carthage had a large agora that functioned as a center for trade, politics, and social life. It was a place where people gathered for festivals or political functions, and possibly where government institutions worked and legal cases were publicly handled.

Mago's (a Carthaginian scholar) writings on agricultural management provide insight into the social dynamics of Carthage. Small landowners were the main producers and were encouraged by Mago to treat their workers, laborers, overseers, and slaves well and fairly. The aristocracy in the city was traditionally dominated by merchants, but land ownership offered them a new power base. In the surrounding areas, there were ethnic and feudal differences between lord and farmer, and between master and serfs. The agricultural areas around Carthage were susceptible to raids, but Carthage usually managed to control these issues.

According to Aristotle, the Carthaginians had organizations comparable to the Greek hetairai, political parties, or interest groups. Inscriptions refer to mizrehim, which functioned as devotional cults or professional guilds. Carthaginian communal meals, similar to the Greek syssitia, promoted family ties and reinforced social and political status, although their specific purpose in Carthaginian society is unknown.

The Carthaginian population spoke a variant of Phoenician, called Punic, a Semitic language originating from their ancestral homeland Phoenicia (present-day Lebanon). Like Phoenician, Punic was written from right to left with an alphabet consisting of 22 consonants and no vowels. It is especially known through inscriptions.

In classical antiquity, Punic was spoken in Carthage's territories and spheres of influence in the western Mediterranean, mainly in Northwest Africa and various Mediterranean islands. Although the Carthaginians maintained ties with their Phoenician homeland, their Punic dialect was gradually influenced by the Berber languages spoken by the ancient Libyans around Carthage.

There is also evidence that Punic was spoken for at least 400 years after the Roman conquest in Sardinia. Inscriptions in Punic have even been found in Christian catacombs in Sirte, Libya, indicating a cultural fusion under Roman rule.

The army of Carthage provides insight into the criteria for citizenship. Greek sources describe a "Sacred Band of Carthage," an elite group of citizen-soldiers who fought in Sicily in 400 BC. This Hellenistic term refers to professional soldiers selected based on basic merit and ability. During the Punic Wars, the core of the Carthaginian army, including commanders and officers, consisted of Liby-Phoenicians. This was a broad term for ethnic Phoenicians, people of mixed Punic-North African descent, and Libyans who were integrated into the Phoenician culture.

During the Second Punic War, Hannibal promised Carthaginian citizenship to his foreign troops as a reward for a victory. At least two of his foreign officers, both Greeks from Syracuse, were citizens of Carthage.

The Carthaginian army was one of the largest in the ancient world. Although the Carthaginian navy was always the primary military power, the army played a crucial role in expanding Carthaginian influence over the indigenous peoples of North Africa and the southern Iberian Peninsula from 600-300 BC.

An important component of the army were the slingers, soldiers who hurled small stones at high speed using cloths. The Balearic Islands were often recruited, as their inhabitants were known for their precision.

The diversity of the Carthaginian army, especially during the Second Punic War, stood out to the Romans. The Roman historian Livy described Hannibal's army as a "medley of the lowest classes of all nationalities." He also noted that the Carthaginians, especially under Hannibal, never enforced uniformity among their diverse troops, but they had such a high degree of unity that they "never quarreled among themselves or mutinied," even in difficult times. Punic officers maintained a certain degree of unity and coordination between these different groups, ensuring that military orders were correctly conveyed and translated to the foreign troops.

Carthage used the diversity of its army to its advantage by capitalizing on the strengths of each nation. Celts and Iberians were often deployed as shock troops, North Africans as cavalry, and Campanians from Southern Italy as heavy infantry. These units were often sent to non-native areas, ensuring they had no affinity for their opponents and could surprise them with unfamiliar tactics. Hannibal, for example, used Iberians and Gauls (from present-day France) in campaigns in Italy and Africa.

Carthage apparently had a formidable cavalry, especially in its homeland in Northwest Africa. A significant portion consisted of light Numidian cavalry, which was considered "by far the best horsemen in Africa." Their speed and agility played a crucial role in various Carthaginian victories, including the Battle of the Trebia, the first major battle in the Second Punic War. The effectiveness of the Numidian cavalry was so great that the Romans used their own unit of them in the decisive Battle of Zama, where they reportedly "tipped the scales" in favor of Rome.

Due to Hannibal's campaigns in the Second Punic War, Carthage is often remembered for the use of the now-extinct North African elephant, which was specially trained for warfare. These elephants were used for frontal attacks or to protect against cavalry. An army could deploy up to hundreds of these animals, but usually fewer than a hundred were used. The riders of the elephants were armed with a spear and a hammer to kill the elephants if they charged in the wrong direction.

In 509 BC, Carthage and Rome concluded a treaty to regulate trade and spheres of influence. This confirmed Carthaginian control over Sicily and Sardinia and demonstrated that Carthage was at least equal to Rome at that time. Carthage built its empire on trade, treaties, and alliances, while Rome focused on territorial expansion. This contrast would later contribute to the Punic Wars.

In 300 BC, Carthage was the center of a vast network of colonies and vassal states, with a population of 250,000. It controlled more territory than Rome and focused on trade protection rather than conquest. Through diplomacy and payment, it controlled Libyan and Phoenician cities, many of which had to contribute to Carthaginian military operations, although they had only limited rights.

The conflict between Carthage and the Greeks was primarily about economic interests: both powers wanted control over important trade routes. The Phoenicians initially had the upper hand in the Mediterranean, but Greek competition increasingly intensified. Both peoples began establishing colonies and trading posts from 900 BC, especially in the western Mediterranean, leading to growing tensions and eventually open conflict, particularly in Sicily.

Carthage's growing power, supported by a strong fleet, led to conflict with the Greeks of Syracuse, who also sought control over Sicily. In 480 BC, Gelo of Syracuse attempted to unite the island, which alarmed Carthage. King Hamilcar of Carthage intervened, but his army suffered heavy losses, including the death of Hamilcar, and the Carthaginian defeat forced peace. This was a turning point for Carthage, which lost its influence over Sicily, while the Greeks largely held the island.

By 410 BC, Carthage had recovered and was active in North Africa and explorations along the Atlantic coast. However, the loss of important Iberian colonies forced Carthage to reconquer Sicily. Hannibal Mago captured several cities in 409 BC, but the main enemy, Syracuse, remained untouched. In 405 BC, Hannibal led a new expedition but was struck by the plague and died. His successor, Himilco, captured Gela and defeated Syracuse multiple times, but he too was struck by the plague and was forced to return to Carthage.

In 398 BC, Dionysius of Syracuse broke the peace treaty and attacked the Carthaginian fortress of Motya. Himilco recaptured Motya and Messene, but the Carthaginian army was struck by the plague again. In 387 BC, the Carthaginians lost again at Syracuse after a surprise attack by Dionysius. Himilco fled the island and returned to Carthage in disgrace.

In 315 BC, Agathocles of Syracuse broke the peace treaty and attacked Carthage's possessions in Sicily. Hamilcar, grandson of Hanno the Great, led a successful resistance and recaptured almost all of Sicily. Agathocles, in desperation, launched an attack on Carthage, forcing Hamilcar to recall his army. Agathocles was eventually defeated but managed to negotiate peace, allowing Syracuse to maintain its position as a Greek power in Sicily.

Carthage became involved in a war in Sicily due to Pyrrhus of Epirus, who contested control of the Mediterranean with Rome and Carthage. After victories in Southern Italy, Pyrrhus decided to help the Greek cities in Sicily drive out the Carthaginians. He sent a large army to Sicily and captured several Carthaginian cities. Carthage was pushed back to the west of Sicily, but Pyrrhus demanded full control of the island.

After heavy losses at the siege of Lilybaeum, Pyrrhus decided to abandon the siege and retreat to Italy. In the Battle of the Strait of Messina, his fleet was destroyed by the Carthaginian ships. Pyrrhus eventually departed for Epirus, while Carthage restored its position in Sicily. For Rome, this meant a strengthening of their influence in Southern Italy.

After the death of Agathocles of Syracuse in 288 BC, many Italian mercenaries were left without work and conquered the city of Messana. They called themselves the Mamertines ("Sons of Mars") and threatened both Carthage and Syracuse. In 265 BC, Hiero II of Syracuse responded by taking action against them. The Mamertines split into two groups: one that wanted to surrender to Carthage and one that asked Rome for help.

Although the Roman parliament hesitated, it still sent an army to assist the Mamertines. The Romans defeated the Carthaginian troops in Messana, marking the beginning of the First Punic War. These wars between Rome and Carthage would determine the course of Western civilization. During the war, Rome achieved some victories, but Carthage recovered, despite some setbacks.

After the war, Rome gained control over Sardinia and Corsica, and Carthage was forced to seek peace. The war led to an internal crisis in Carthage, with the Barcid family gaining influence.

The Mercenary War, also known as the "War without Mercy," was a revolt of mercenaries who fought for Carthage during the First Punic War (264–241 BC). This revolt was supported by African cities that rose against Carthaginian rule.

The war lasted from 241 until late 238 or early 237 BC and ended with a harsh victory for Carthage, which managed to suppress both the mercenary revolt and that of the cities.

Prolonged hostility and tensions along the borders led to the Second Punic War (218–201 BC), a conflict involving both the western and eastern Mediterranean. The war is especially known for Hannibal's daring march to Italy, including his infamous and arduous crossing of the Alps. In Northern Italy, he gained support from Gallic allies and achieved significant victories against the Romans, such as at the Battle of the Trebia and the Battle of Lake Trasimene.

Rome responded with the Fabian strategy, avoiding direct battles and attempting to wear down Hannibal's army with small skirmishes. Although effective, it met with political resistance, and the Romans decided to engage in a large-scale battle at Cannae. However, they suffered a crushing defeat there, with an estimated 60,000 soldiers killed.

After Cannae, many of Rome's allies chose the side of Carthage, which extended the war in Italy by more than ten years. Although Rome repeatedly suffered great losses, they were able to replenish their armies thanks to their enormous population. With their superior siege techniques, they reconquered important cities and defeated a Carthaginian attempt to reinforce Hannibal at the Battle of the Metaurus.

Meanwhile, Scipio Africanus led a successful campaign in Iberia, the main recruitment area of Carthage. He captured New Carthage and defeated the Carthaginians at the Battle of Ilipa, destroying their power in the region.

The war ended with the decisive Battle of Zama, in present-day Tunisia. After earlier victories at Utica and the Great Plains, Scipio forced Hannibal to abandon his campaign in Italy. Despite Hannibal's larger army and clever tactics, Carthage was devastatingly defeated.

The war ended with harsh terms for Carthage: they had to pay a massive war debt, surrender their fleet, and confine themselves to North Africa. Carthage became a vassal state of Rome, and Rome solidified its dominance in the Mediterranean region.

The Third Punic War began in 149 BC under the influence of aggressive Roman senators, led by Cato the Elder. Cato ended almost all his speeches in the Senate with the famous words: "Moreover, I am of the opinion that Carthage must be destroyed." Rome wanted to seize the rich agricultural lands of Carthage and its African territory, and a border conflict between Carthage and Numidia—a Roman ally—served as an excuse to declare war.

Unlike the earlier Punic wars, this war was short and mostly consisted of one major conflict: the Battle of Carthage. Despite their weakened state, Carthage offered surprisingly strong resistance. The Romans initially suffered defeats at Lake Tunis, Nepheris, and Hippagreta, and even the small Carthaginian fleet managed to inflict significant damage with fire ships. Carthage held out for three years against the Roman siege until Scipio Aemilianus, the adopted grandson of Scipio Africanus, took command and successfully continued the assault.

Ultimately, Carthage could not withstand the overwhelming power of Rome. The city was completely destroyed, its population largely killed or enslaved, and all remaining Carthaginian territory was annexed by Rome. The Third Punic War was the most decisive: Carthage ceased to exist as an independent power, marking the end of Phoenician influence in the Mediterranean.

After the destruction of Carthage, Rome established the province of Africa Proconsularis, which largely corresponded to the former Carthaginian territory. Utica, an ally of Rome during the war, received tax benefits and became the regional capital, thus becoming the main center of Punic trade and culture.

In 122 BC, the populist senator Gaius Gracchus founded a colony named Colonia Iunonia, close to the ruins of Carthage. This settlement was intended to provide poor farmers with agricultural land but was quickly disbanded by the Senate, which sought to limit Gracchus' influence.

Nearly a century later, Julius Caesar built a new city on the site of Carthage, between 49 and 44 BC. This "Roman Carthage" quickly became the center of the province of Africa. The city grew into a major grain supplier of the Roman Empire and one of the wealthiest provinces. Around the first century AD, Carthage was the second largest city

Elements of Carthage'ss political system persisted during the Roman period, often in a Romanized form. In large Roman settlements on Sardinia, for example, sufetes are mentioned in inscriptions. This suggests that Punic descendants used the function or name to resist cultural and political assimilation by the Romans. Until 200 AD, two sufetes still held power in Bithia, a city in the Roman province of Sardinia and Corsica.

The Romans tolerated, and sometimes adopted, Carthaginian institutions. For example, they reused the title sufet for local Roman magistrates in Africa Proconsularis, which included Carthage and surrounding areas. Sufetes governed more than forty cities and villages after the fall of Carthage, such as Thugga, Mactar, and Cirta. Some of these cities had little Carthaginian influence, such as Volubilis in present-day Morocco, which was previously part of the Kingdom of Mauretania, a Roman client state after the fall of Carthage.

The use of sufetes persisted until the late 2nd century AD and illustrates how aspects of Carthaginian culture endured under Roman rule.