Introduction: Roman Religions

To understand the Romans, it is necessary to comprehend their religion. In this blog, we discuss the original Roman religion and how it developed until it was replaced by Christianity.

The Roman religion has an Indo-European foundation. This makes it comparable to the religion of other peoples such as the Germans, Celts, Greeks, and even the Persians (before the introduction of Zoroastrianism). The Roman religion was a dharmic religion that, like the society, was organized around an oath-bound culture of reciprocity. Roman law and government were primarily structured to maintain this cosmic order.

The Romans considered themselves very religious and saw their success as a world power as a result of their devotion (pietas) to the gods. Their polytheistic religion worshiped a hierarchy of many gods.

They approached their gods with the principle do ut des , I give so that you may also give, so that mortal Romans could ensure the cosmic order with the eternal gods. The religion was therefore practical and contractual. The religion was based on the proper execution of prayer, ritual, and offering, not on belief or dogma, although Latin literature allowed room for speculation about the nature of the divine. Even the most skeptical Romans, such as Cicero, saw religion as a source of social order.

For ordinary Romans, religion was an integral part of daily life. Almost every home had a household altar where prayers and offerings were made to the household gods. There were also neighborhood temples and sacred places in the city. The Roman calendar was organized around religious observances, and women, slaves, and children participated. Some public rituals were performed only by women, and the sacred hearth of Rome was guarded by women, the famous Vestal Virgins.

The Roman religion was laterally influenced by the Etruscan and Greek religions. All three share their Indo-European cultural heritage, and the exchange between these religions was therefore seen as logical. The Romans sought similarities between their gods and those of the Greeks, adapting Greek myths and iconography for Latin literature and Roman art, just as the Etruscans had done. The Etruscan religion also had a significant influence, especially on the use of diviners, called augurs, to determine the will of the gods. 

The Roman pantheon included many gods, some of which can be traced back to their Proto-Indo-European origins. The main gods were the twelve Olympic gods, descendants of the god Saturn (Greek: Kronos). In addition, dozens of other gods, demigods, and forces were worshipped.

Jupiter, equivalent to the Greek Zeus – The supreme god of the Romans, a development of the Indo-European god *Dyēus ph₂tēr.

Juno, equivalent to the Greek Hera – The wife of Jupiter and goddess of marriage. 

Neptune, equivalent to the Greek Poseidon – God of the sea, earthquakes, and horses.

Ceres, equivalent to the Greek Demeter - Goddess of harvest, fertility, agriculture, and the seasons.

Apollo, equivalent to the Greek Apollo – God of the sun, music, poetry, prophecy, and healing.

Diana, equivalent to the Greek Artemis – Goddess of the hunt, wildlife, and the moon. 

Mars, equivalent to the Greek Ares – God of war and battle, agriculture, and fertility. 

Minerva, equivalent to the Greek Pallas Athena – Goddess of wisdom, art, strategy, and war. 

Hephaestus, equivalent to the Greek Hephaistos - God of blacksmithing and craftsmanship.

Venus, equivalent to the Greek Aphrodite – Goddess of love, beauty, and fertility. 

Mercury, equivalent to the Greek Hermes – God of commerce, travelers, and messages. 

Depending on the list, Vesta or Bacchus were also members of the Olympic gods

Vesta, equivalent to the Greek Hestia - Goddess of the home, family, and hearth. 

Bacchus, equivalent to the Greek Dionysos - God of wine and festivity.

Another very important god was Pluto (Greek: Hades), the god of the underworld and death. He did not live on Olympus but in the Underworld, and therefore was not a member of the Olympic gods.

After the fall of the Republic, the state religion supported the emperors. Augustus justified the autocracy with a program of religious reforms and renewed veneration of the emperor. As a result, the emperor took over the role of pontifex maximus and became increasingly deified. The imperial cult became an important means of promoting cultural identity and loyalty within the empire. 

Rome integrated the gods and cults of other peoples, rather than destroying them, because they believed that preserving traditions promoted social stability. Over the course of the empire, many foreign gods came to Rome, such as Epona, Cybele, Isis, and Mithras. The worship of these gods sometimes became mystery religions.

These mystery religions were secretive cults that provided initiates with deeper knowledge and power, often involving dance, music, and intoxicating substances. The Mithras cult, popular among soldiers, was based on the Persian god Mithras.

Many Roman gods had both public and secret rituals, such as the cult of Magna Mater, where her priests, the Galli, underwent ritual castration. The cult of Ceres and Libera was connected with Greek mysteries, and the cult of Isis became increasingly popular. In Pompeii, paintings of Bacchic mysteries were discovered, rituals that were regulated by the authorities after a coup.

Prayers and vows were an essential part of the religion. Offerings were intended to appease the gods, and an offering without prayer was considered useless. In public rituals, it was the priest's duty to recite prayers loudly and clearly, and any mistake could result in the ritual needing to be repeated. Private prayers were also often prescribed according to fixed formulas.

One of the most powerful offerings in Rome was the animal sacrifice, especially of livestock such as cattle, sheep, or pigs. These animals were selected as the best of their kind, and the sacrifice had to proceed quickly and calmly to maintain harmony between the earthly and divine worlds. Offerings for the celestial gods, such as Jupiter, were performed with white animals, while gods with a stronger connection to the earth received fertile animals. Often a banquet was held after the sacrifice, where the meat was shared and the gods received their portion via the entrails (exteriores).

Although human sacrifices were later banned in Rome, derivative rituals were performed in times of crisis. After the defeat at Cannae (216 BC), for example, a few people were buried as part of a sacrifice. Gladiator fights, which were popular in Roman times, were originally held as a kind of blood sacrifice for the spirits of the dead or Saturn.

Superstitio, or excessive religious devotion, was often seen as problematic, especially when associated with magic or astrologers. Although magic and astrology were officially banned, they persisted, especially among the lower classes. Numerous magical rituals were performed, such as the use of inscriptions and dolls for revenge or to gain favors from the gods.

The religious and aristocratic classes were virtually equal to each other. Thus, the king or emperor was also chief judge and high priest. As a result, the Romans did not have a separation between church and state. Priests were married, had families, and led active political lives. The augurs predicted the will of the gods and oversaw boundary markers as a reflection of universal order, which supported Rome's expansion policy.

In Rome, there was no separate priestly caste. The highest authority within a community led the rituals and appointed assistants. In household cults, the pater familias functioned as the priest.

Public cults required more expertise, and the earliest public priests were the flamines, a role fulfilled as early as the kingship of Numa (around 700 BC). The principal flamines were dedicated to Jupiter, Mars, and the state god Quirinus and came from patrician families. Flamines had to remain ritually pure. Besides the three flamines maiores, there were also twelve flamines minores, a role that could also be fulfilled by a plebeian.

During the monarchy, the rex sacrorum was appointed to perform rituals and announce public festivals. This role had little civil power. After the monarchy, the influence of the pontifices increased, and by the end of the republic, the flamines were controlled by the pontifical colleges. The rex sacrorum assumed a symbolic role.

Priests were appointed by collegia and had lifelong influence but received no salary. The priesthood was an expensive honor and required the maintenance of cults, even in the absence of public funds. It was an honorable form of retirement for those who had completed their Cursus honorum. Freedmen or slaves could gain influence as priests of the Compitalia.

In the imperial period, the priesthood of the imperial cult offered provincial elites full Roman citizenship and public prominence. The Arval Brothers performed prayers and sacrifices for the imperial family and marked special events.

The auspex and haruspex were priests who interpreted the will of the gods.

The auspex interpreted signs in the sky, such as the flight of birds or the impact of lightning, to make decisions, for example, postponing public actions. The haruspex examined the entrails of sacrificial animals, for instance, to predict the outcome of a war. This practice originally came from the Etruscans.

Unexpected events such as natural disasters were seen as signs of divine displeasure and had to be ritually countered. Both the army and the Senate consulted augurs and haruspices to determine how such omens should be interpreted.

Within the home and family, religion was also practiced, primarily by the pater familias, the eldest man in the family and the head of the household. He had the responsibility of performing daily rituals for the lares (household gods), and for the protection of his family members, including slaves and freedmen. His wife took care of the cult of Vesta, the goddess of the home.

Ritual and sacrifice were meant to obtain the blessings of the gods, and adhering to the correct rituals was seen as essential for social harmony. The virtues of respect for the gods and fulfilling religious duties were important for the well-being of the community.

Women played an important role within religion, although they did not have an active role in major public rituals such as animal sacrifices. However, they were present at many festivals, and some rituals were specifically for women, such as the rituals of the Bona Dea.

The Vestal Virgins were six women who took care of the sacred flame of Vesta, the goddess of the hearth. The priesthood offered them special status, political influence, and privileges. Once a girl was chosen as a Vestal Virgin, she was removed from her father's authority and answered only to the Pontifex Maximus (the high priest). The Vestal Virgins did not have to marry or children, but they had to take a strict vow of chastity. If this vow was broken, a Vestal Virgin was buried alive.

The maintenance of the sacred fire was an essential part of ensuring the safety of Rome. The priestesses took care of the Lares and Penates of the state. They were also involved in other important rituals, such as the Parilia and the Fordicidia.

The Vestal Virgins were increasingly honored by Augustus and later emperors and were given an important place at public events. As Christianity gained influence, the Vestal priesthood was gradually abolished, and under Emperor Theodosius I, the sacred fire of Vesta was extinguished.

In ancient Rome, there were about forty annual religious festivals, varying in duration. Holy days (dies fasti) were more numerous than non-holy days (dies nefasti). Festivals were often seasonal, but there was also room for local traditions.

Popular festivals consisted of ludi (games), such as chariot races and theatrical performances, as well as rituals, such as the Bona Dea rites for women. Religious ceremonies usually took place outdoors, with offerings on altars and prayers to the gods. Temples were important, with statues of gods and often artworks captured during wars.

The rituals surrounding death varied depending on the status of the deceased. Wealthy Romans often held spectacular funerals, while the poor performed simpler rituals. After the cremation or burial of the body, a commemorative offering was made, and belief in an afterlife was expressed through the rituals of the dii Manes, the spirits of the dead.

In the Proto-Indo-European creation story, the cosmic twins *Manu and *Yemo create the world. *Manu sacrifices his brother *Yemo and, with the help of the gods, creates the earth, nature, and humans from his body. Through this sacrifice, *Manu becomes the first priest and establishes the basic for world order. The social classes of humanity arise from the different body parts of *Yemo: the priests from his head, the warriors from his chest and arms, and the common people from his genitals and legs. From this premise, Indo-European peoples have different classes, the working, fighting, and religious classes.

The myth about the founding of Rome can also be traced back to this creation story. The founding mythology includes various historical myths about the founding and rise of the city, with human figures at the center and the gods occasionally intervening.

Rome's origin is often linked to the Trojans. The Trojan Aeneas, demigod and son of Venus, carries sacred objects from Troy to Italy during his flight from the burning city. He thus becomes the founder of the Roman religion and ancestor of the Romans. Aeneas is also said to have erected the Ara Maxima, an altar for Hercules.

Romulus and Remus, descendants of Aeneas and sons of Mars, are the mythical founders of the city itself. They are suckled by a she-wolf and raised by a shepherd. As young men, they reclaim the land and build the foundation of the city of Rome. Romulus kills Remus during the construction of the city, a sacrifice that secures the future of the city. Romulus is credited with the establishment of various religious institutions, such as the Consualia and the temple of Jupiter Feretrius.

Christianity was a cult from the Roman provinces of Judea. From Judea, the religion spread to various Roman cities, where it was originally practiced as a mystery cult, similar to the cult of Mithras. 

Christianity emerged from Judaism. Both are Abrahamic and monotheistic religions. In monotheism, one god is seen as the true god, and all other gods as idols. Both Judaism and Christianity take a holy scripture as a guide. They distinguish between good and evil, a principle likely originating from Persian Zoroastrianism, developed as a counter-reaction to many sacrifices by the Scythians.

The Roman religion, like the Germanic and Greek religions, was polytheistic and dharmic. There is no distinction made between good and evil, but the cosmic order is central. Actions have consequences, good or bad, all affecting the change in the cosmic order. The cosmic order can be positively influenced, for example, by holding large festivals to make the population happy. If the order is disrupted by negative events, such as an uprising, balance can be restored, for instance, by taking excessive revenge.

This fundamentally different way of thinking quickly led Jews and Christians to place themselves outside Roman society. For example, they did not recognize the Roman emperor as a deity. By the end of the 1st century, Roman authorities recognized Christianity as a separate religion from Judaism. Christians had to devise their own form of compensation because they did not worship the emperor as a god. 

Christianity spread mainly in the eastern part of the empire and beyond, and gradually gained more followers in the west from the 3rd century. The main reason was probably their egalitarian approach to society. By the year 300, about 10% of the Roman population was Christian.

In the 4th century, Christianity grew rapidly. In 301, Armenia, a kingdom that was formally a Roman client kingdom, became the first country to adopt Christianity as the state religion.

Emperor Constantine I brought Christianity under the protection of the state. The Edict of Milan (313) introduced religious tolerance, allowing both Christianity and traditional Roman religions to coexist. It is possible that at this time, there was not complete awareness of what monotheism entailed.

Constantine built churches, such as St. Peter's Basilica, and supported Christianity while continuing to promote the divinity of the Roman emperorship. He convened the First Council of Nicaea (325), where the basic principles of the Christian faith were established. After his death in 337, he was revered as both a Christian and a divine emperor.

He was succeeded by his sons, but internal divisions over how Christianity should be practiced led to schismss and internal conflicts. Emperor Julian (361-363) attempted to restore the old paganism, but after his death, Christianity became dominant again.

In 380, Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire under Emperor Theodosius I, who suppressed paganism. Christianity now became the state religion, and non-Christians were excluded. In the 5th century, Roman religious rituals and priesthoods were dismantled or assimilated as Christian tradition. 

Of course, the pre-Christian Roman faith continued regionally for hundreds of years. In Mani, a region in Greece, it lasted until the 9th century before most inhabitants converted to Christianity.

Many 'barbarian' Germanic peoples also retained their pagan religion. As Christianity gained influence, the Roman reliance on these barbarian peoples also grew, which must have led to cultural and ethnic polarization.