Introduction: The Roman Empire

The Roman Empire controlled large parts of Europe, Western Asia, and North Africa and began its expansion during the Roman Republic. The empire was ruled by emperors from 27 BC, after Octavian seized power following his victory over Mark Antony and Cleopatra. The Western Roman Empire fell in 476 AD, but the Eastern Roman Empire continued until the fall of Constantinople in 1453 AD.

Around 100 BC, Rome had expanded its power over nearly the entire Mediterranean region. However, internal conflicts, such as civil wars, caused unrest. The struggle between Octavian and Mark Antony reached its peak at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC, after which the kingdom of the Ptolemies in Egypt was conquered. In 27 BC, the Roman Senate appointed Octavian as Augustus, the first emperor of Rome. The empire was divided into provinces, which were governed by proconsuls and legates.

Rome began its expansion shortly after the establishment of the Roman Republic in 600 BC, but it truly extended its influence beyond Italy in 300 BC. The Republic was not a modern nation-state, but a network of autonomous cities and provinces, governed by military commanders and annually elected magistrates, such as the consuls. In 100 BC, there was much political and military unrest, leading to the rise of the emperors.

Julius Caesar was briefly dictator for life but was assassinated in 44 BC by opponents who found his power excessive. After his death, Octavian and Mark Antony fought for control. Octavian defeated Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC. In 27 BC, Octavian received the title Augustus from the Senate, marking the beginning of the Empire.

The period that began with the reign of Augustus was characterized by the Pax Romana, a time of peace and prosperity (lasting two centuries). Under the "Five Good Emperors" (Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, and Marcus Aurelius), the empire reached its greatest stability and prosperity. During this time, uprisings in the provinces were rare and quickly suppressed.

Under Emperor Trajan (98–117 AD), the empire reached its greatest extent. But under Emperor Commodus (180–192 AD), problems began. In the 3rd century, the empire was in crisis for nearly fifty years due to civil wars, epidemics, and barbarian invasions. The empire was temporarily split, but Emperor Aurelian (270–275 AD) reunited it.

In the 4th century AD, under Emperor Constantine the Great (306–337 AD), the capital of the empire was moved from Rome to Byzantium, which was renamed Constantinople. Constantine was the first Christian emperor and introduced Christianity as the state religion.

The transition from the classical antiquity to the late antiquity was marked by the invasions of Germanic and nomadic peoples, such as the Goths and the Huns of Attila, which facilitated the downfall of the Western Roman Empire. Emperor Commodus (r. 180–192 AD) is seen by some historians as the beginning of the empire's decline.

In 212 AD, Emperor Caracalla granted Roman citizenship to all free inhabitants of the empire. The rule of the Severan dynasty was more turbulent, with many emperors being removed by murder or execution. This led to the Crisis of the Third Century, a period of invasions, civil wars, economic problems, and epidemics. The empire was stabilized by Emperor Aurelian (270–275 AD), who strengthened the empire militarily. Emperor Diocletian (r. 284–305) reorganized the empire into four regions, each governed by a tetrarch.

After the reign of Diocletian, the empire was divided into two parts: the Eastern Roman Empire and the Western Roman Empire. The Eastern Roman Empire, with Constantinople as its capital, would survive for nearly a thousand more years, until the fall of the city in 1453. The Western Roman Empire fell in 476 AD, when the Germanic leader Odoacer deposed the last emperor, Romulus Augustulus.

From the early 5th century, the Western Roman Empire began to decline. Although the Romans managed to defeat invasions such as that of Attila the Hun, the empire had integrated so many Germanic peoples that their questionable loyalty caused the empire to slowly dismantle itself. According to most chronologies, the Western Roman Empire ended in 476 AD, when Emperor Romulus Augustulus was forced to abdicate by the Germanic warlord Odoacer.

Odoacer ended the Western Roman Empire by declaring Zeno, the Eastern Roman emperor, as the sole emperor and appointing himself as Zeno's subordinate. In reality, Odoacer ruled Italy alone. The Eastern Roman Empire, later referred to by historians as the Byzantine Empire, continued to exist until the year 1453. It ended when Emperor Constantine XI Palaiologos died during the siege of Constantinople by Mehmed II and his Ottoman forces. Mehmed II assumed the title of Caesar, which was his attempt to claim a connection with the ancient Roman Empire.

The Roman Empire was one of the largest empires in history, with vast territories in Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East. The Latin expression imperium sine fine (empire without end) emphasized the idea that there were no boundaries, both in time and space, for the empire. In Vergil's Aeneid, it is said that the Romans would receive an unlimited empire, granted by Jupiter. This claim of global dominion was reaffirmed when the empire came under Christian rule in the 4th century.

The expansion of Rome was primarily realized during the Republic, although parts of Northern Europe were conquered in the 1st century AD. Under Emperor Augustus, a "global map of the known world" was presented for the first time, coinciding with the publication of Strabo's Geography, the most comprehensive political geographical work preserved from antiquity.

The Roman Empire reached its greatest extent under Emperor Trajan (98–117 AD), with a territory of approximately 5 million square kilometers. The population is estimated between 55 and 60 million people, which constituted between one-sixth and one-fourth of the world's population, and the Empire was the largest political entity in the West until the 19th century. Later demographic studies estimate the population even between 70 and 100 million. The three largest cities in the Empire – Rome, Alexandria, and Antioch – were nearly twice as large as any European city at the beginning of the 17th century.

The Roman Empire stretched from Hadrian's Wall in the rainy north of England to the sun-drenched shores of the Euphrates in Syria. It encircled the Mediterranean, which the Romans called mare nostrum (our sea).

Emperor Hadrian, the successor of Trajan, decided to maintain the Empire's borders instead of further expanding them. The borders were marked and guarded, with the most heavily fortified borders along the most unstable areas. Hadrian's Wall, which separated the Roman Empire from the perceived barbarian enemy, is the most significant remnant of this defense.

Latin and Greek were the principal languages of the Roman Empire, but the Empire was consciously multilingual. At the beginning of the Empire, knowledge of Greek was considered useful to be regarded as an educated person, while knowledge of Latin was important for a career in the military, government, or law. Twenty-two-year-old inscriptions indicate that both languages were used interchangeably in daily life.

The influence of Latin on Greek was quite normal in the early imperial period, especially for military, administrative, and commercial matters. Greek grammar, literature, poetry, and philosophy strongly influenced the Latin language and culture. Over time, the use of Latin increasingly became a sign of status and power, especially for the Roman elite. After the universal granting of Roman citizenship to all free inhabitants in 212, not every Roman citizen was familiar with Latin.

Roman society was multicultural, with a shared identity despite the diversity. Monuments and public spaces fostered a sense of a common Roman identity. There were various social hierarchies, and the civil war before Augustus caused social unrest. Until Nero, it was not uncommon for former slaves to be wealthier than free citizens. Social mobility was greater than in other ancient societies, and women, slaves, and freedmen had more opportunities. Voluntary associations such as unions and religious groups played an important role in social life.

In Roman law, people were divided into free people (liberi) and slaves (servi). Free people enjoyed rights depending on their citizenship. In 212 AD, all free inhabitants of the empire were granted Roman citizenship, making the legal system more inclusive.

Women were citizens but excluded from political and military roles. They could own property and conduct business transactions but had no voting rights or public offices. Their legal status depended on their father's citizenship. Women with three or more children received certain privileges, as reduced fertility was a major issue partly due to the lead in Rome's water pipes.

Slavery was essential to the Roman economy. Slaves were treated as property and could not enter into legal marriages. Manumissio (emancipation) was common, and freed slaves could reach influential positions. Slavery was based on the conquest of a people and territory, not on race. Most slaves in the Roman Empire were white and were Celts and Germans or slaves from the Pontic-Caspian steppe (purchased from the Scythians).

Freed slaves became citizens but could not hold prestigious positions. Many freedmen succeeded in the imperial administration or the military, and some achieved considerable wealth and power.

The Roman Empire offered social mobility through military or administrative careers. Provincial people could rise to higher social classes. Maintaining a high status required significant personal expenditures for public services.

The Roman structure consisted of three components: the central government, the army, and the provincial administration. The emperor had immense power and was both a political and religious authority. In the 4th century, the emperor became more reliant on bureaucrats.

The army was essential for maintaining the Pax Romana and consisted of professional soldiers. The army included the Praetorian Guard, provincial armies, and the fleet. It was also important for the spread of Romanization.

Roman art was heavily influenced by Greek art, with sculptures and monuments such as triumphal arches. Portrait art was prominent, as well as mosaics often used for floor decorations. Paintings depicted mythological and everyday scenes, and decorative art included pottery, silver, and glassware.

The Romans loved theater, music, and dance. The stage was often spectacular, with men playing female roles. Music was important for social occasions and rituals, with instruments such as the tibia, cithara, and hydraulis.

The Romans considered themselves religious and attributed their success to piety (pietas) and good relations with the gods (pax deorum). The early religion, derived from the kings of Rome, was the basic of the mos maiorum ("the way of the ancestors"), which was central to Roman identity. The religion was practical and contractual, based on the principle do ut des ("I give so that you may give").

Religion was a daily part of life for Romans. Every home had a shrine for prayers and offerings to the household gods, and there were neighborhood shrines and sacred places such as springs and groves. The Roman calendar was structured around religious celebrations, with up to 135 days dedicated to festivals and games.

After the fall of the Republic, the state religion adapted to support the empire. Augustus justified his rule with a program of religious reform. Public vows were directed at the emperor's well-being, and the "imperial cult" expanded the veneration of ancestors and the Genius. Emperors could be elevated to gods (divus) after their death.

The Romans worshiped many gods. As Rome expanded, local gods and cults were incorporated into Roman religion to promote stability. In the Empire, syncretic gods like Cybele, Isis, Epona , Mithras and Sol Invictus were worshipped. Religious tolerance was common, as the Romans were never required to follow one god or cult.

Mystery cults, which offered salvation in the afterlife, became popular based on basic of personal preference. These religions were exclusive and secret, viewed by conservatives as "magic". They were opposed to certain mystery cults such as that of Bacchus.