The Roman scutum

The scutum, the large Roman shield, is the most characteristic weapon of the legionary. In this blog, we will discuss the development of the scutum and its origin. The Roman scutum is a large shield that was widely used in antiquity until it was replaced by round shields around the 3rd century AD. 

Probably, elongated oval shields were developed by the Celts and introduced to the peoples of Italy during the sack of Rome in the 4th century BC. During these wars, the Samnite tribes living in the Apennines formed alliances with the Celts. As a result, they may have adopted the use of the scutum from the Celts.

Around this time, the Roman armies mainly consisted of hoplite armies that fought in a phalanx formation during the Celtic sack of Rome and the Samnite wars in the 4th century BC. The Romans learned the hard way that static phalanx formations on the battlefield were inferior to more maneuverable infantrymen. Therefore, they copied the Samnite shields and adapted the combat techniques of their army. From now on, the Roman army would consist of velites, lightly armed javelin throwers. As the first line: Hastatii armed with scutum, sword (mainly La Tène B) and the pilum, which was suitable for both stabbing and throwing. As the second line: Principes, similarly armed but wealthier and therefore better armored. The third line consisted of Triarii, similarly armored as the Principes but equipped with scutum and spear allowing them to use phalanx techniques. 

The theory is based on the works of various ancient writers. However, the ancient Roman historian Livy (54 BC - 17 AD) noted that the extended shields, along with the manipular tactics, appeared at the beginning of the 4th century BC before the Samnite Wars. The ancient Greek writer and philosopher Plutarch (46 - 127 AD) mentioned the use of a shield similar to the early scutum in the Battle of 366 BC in his work Parallel Lives. The French archaeologist P. Coussin suggested that the scutum was used long before the Samnite Wars and was not adopted from the Samnites. The Italian Villanova culture also used oval round shields in the 8th century BC. The oval shields may have been replaced from the 8th century BC after the Greeks established trading colonies on the Italian peninsula and the Etruscans (and later Romans) were greatly influenced. The Etruscans adopted the phalanx formation along with the aspis (round shields used by the hoplites).  

In any case, shields were developed, like other weapons and armor, according to need. The Greek aspis was ideal because its curves allowed spears to be thrust both overhand and underhand between a wall of shields. Oval shields are more shaped to the form of your body and therefore provide better protection in both tight and open formations where the enemy is engaged in close combat. 

The first images of the scutum originate from the Este culture in the 8th century BC and then spread to the Italians, Illyrians, and Celts.

It is expected that the first scuta (plural of scutum) made their entrance into the Roman army as early as the 4th century BC. These shields proved effective and were even used until the second half of the 1st century BC. The first scuta were oval at the top and bottom. In the middle, they had a wooden central rib for additional reinforcement. In the middle of the rib was a shield boss behind which the handle was attached to the inside of the shield. A shield boss protected the hand and could also be used as a striking weapon. These shields were approximately 130 cm long, which was considerably longer than the scutum used from the early Imperial period. The shield was slightly curved, in contrast to many Celtic shields found in the lake of La Tène. A Galatian (Celtic) original of this type of shield, which also has this curvature, was found in Kasr el Harit in Egypt, the well-known Fayum shield.

The oval scutum is depicted on the Altar of Domitius Ahenobarbus in Rome and the monument of Aemilius Paullus in Delphi.

By the beginning of the civil wars, the shape of the scutum had changed to a more rectangular form. The curves of the old scuta, especially those at the bottom, presented a vulnerable spot to the right leg (which was put forward during combat). The new model scutum was completely rectangular and no longer had these curves. The central rib also disappeared and was replaced at the front by only a rectangular, square, or round shield boss. The scutum became shorter, about 107 cm long, making it lighter and easier to hold for extended periods. The straight shape of the scutum provided an advantage during line battles, where the line could be completely closed. This scutum can be seen on many different reliefs and artworks. Several original specimens have been found, of which the specimen from the 2nd century AD from Dura Europos is the best preserved. Fragments of another scutum, from the 1st century AD, have been found in Doncaster in England and in Masada in Israell. 

The scutum was light enough to be held with one hand and had a height and width that covered the entire bearer, reducing the likelihood of being hit by projectiles or during hand-to-hand combat. The metal knob, or shield boss, in the center of the scutum also served as an additional striking weapon.

The composite construction, however, meant that early versions of the scutum could break under heavy chopping or thrusting attacks. This was experienced during the Roman campaigns against Carthage and Dacia, where weapons such as the falcata and falx could easily penetrate the shield and tear it apart. The impact of these weapons led to design modifications that made the scutum stronger, such as thicker planks and metal edges.

The construction of the core of the scutum remained virtually unchanged during the period it was in use by the Roman army. Typically, 9 to 10 wooden strips, 6 to 10 cm wide, were placed in the length, with thinner strips glued perpendicularly on both sides (both the inside and outside of the shield). This created a three-layered wooden basic with a thickness of approximately 6 mm.

Initially, the basic of the scutum was covered with felt, but by the time of the Roman Republic, the shield was covered with calfskin and canvas, with the edges reinforced with iron, bronze, or sometimes leather. In the center, a round opening was cut out for the handle, which was covered by a shield boss. Originally, this shield boss was made of wood and had a spool shape, but during the Republic period, it was made of iron or bronze and took on a rectangular shape.

In classical antiquity, several mentions were made of the scutum. 

"The Roman defense mainly consists of the shield (scutum), whose convex surface is two and a half feet wide and four feet long, with a thickness at the edge equal to the width of a palm. It consists of two layers of wooden strips (planks) glued together, whose exterior is covered with canvas and calfskin. The upper and lower edges are reinforced with iron to protect the shield from blows and damage when placed on the ground. An iron shield boss (shield boss) is attached to it, which deflects the heaviest blows of stones, spears, and other heavy projectiles..." 2nd century AD.

According to Polybius, the scutum gave Roman soldiers an advantage over their Carthaginian enemies during the Punic Wars:
"Their weapons also gave the men both protection and confidence, which they owed to the size of the shield."

The Roman writer Suetonius noted anecdotes about the heroic centurion Cassius Scaeva and legionary Gaius Acilius, who fought respectively under Caesar in the Battle of Dyrrachium and the Battle of Massilia:
Scaeva, having lost one eye, his thigh and shoulder wounded, and his shield pierced in one hundred and twenty places [with arrows], continued to guard the gate of a fort entrusted to him.

Acilius grabbed the stern of an enemy ship in the naval battle at Massilia, and when his right hand was cut off, he matched the famous deed of the Greek hero Cynegirus, climbed aboard the ship, and drove the enemy before him with the hilt of his shield.

The Roman writer Cassius Dio described in his Roman History a battle between Romans themselves in the Battle of Philippi:
"For a long time there was pushing of scutum against scutum and thrusting with the sword, while they initially cautiously sought an opportunity to wound others without being wounded themselves."

The shape of the scutum allowed tightly packed formations of legionaries to overlap their shields and thus provide an effective barrier against projectiles. The most novel (and specialized, as it offered virtually no protection against other attacks) use was the testudo (Latin for "tortoise"), where legionaries held their shields overhead to protect themselves against descending projectiles (such as arrows, spears, or objects thrown by defenders on walls).

Cassius Dio gives an account of a testudo well used by the men of Marcus Antonius during a campaign in Armenia:
"One day, when they were ambushed and assailed by a dense rain of arrows, the legionaries suddenly formed the testudo by joining their shields together and resting their left knees on the ground. The barbarians... threw away their bows, jumped from their horses, drew their daggers and came close to finish them. Thereupon, the Romans leapt up, extended their line... and confronted the enemy face to face, attacked them... and cut down large numbers."

The testudo, however, was not invincible, as Dio also gives an account of a Roman shield formation being defeated by Parthian knights and horse archers in the Battle of Carrhae:
"For if [the legionaries] decided to close shields to avoid the arrows by the density of their formation, the riders came upon them, struck some down, and at least scattered the others; and if they expanded their ranks to avoid this, they were struck by the arrows."

Cassius Dio describes how scuta were used to support an ambush:

"Pompeius was eager to lure Orestes into a conflict before he could discover the strength of the Romans, fearing he would retreat once he knew their numbers... He kept the rest behind... in a kneeling position and covered with their shields, keeping them immobile, so that Orestes would not notice their presence until he approached them closely."

He also notes that the scutum was used as a means of psychological warfare during the conquest of Syracuse:

"Accordingly, some of the gates were opened by [legionnaires], and as soon as a few had entered, all, both inside and outside, raised a shout at an agreed signal and struck their spears on their shields, and the trumpeters blew a signal, resulting in total panic overwhelming the Syracusans."

The early Roman scuta likely sometimes had steel and sometimes wooden shield bosses that were attached to the central midrib. During the early imperial period, the midrib disappeared and only the shield boss remained at the front. This knob could be either rectangular or round. The tradition of round shield bosses was likely adopted from the Germanic and Celtic auxiliary troops. Some shield bosses were bronzed, which looked luxurious and protected against rust. Some shield bosses were richly engraved, and it is possible that these knobs were used on luxury parade shields. It is possible that the luxuriously painted scutum of Dura Europos was painted for parades. Over the centuries, virtually nothing changed in the design of the round shield bosses. Even during the Late Roman Empire, these remained in use, while from the 5th century, possibly due to Germanic influences, more conical shield bosses were used, such as the Rhenen-Vermand type. From the 3rd century, the rectangular and square shield bosses disappeared, along with the traditional scutum. The round shield bosses continued to be used alongside conical forms until the 11th century.

Scuta of the Roman Empire had different shield bosses. Some originals have been found, such as the round shield boss from Kirkham, Papcastle, South Shield in England.

Because few original scutum shields have been found, we must rely on shields depicted on Roman frescoess and reliefs. Several Roman writers mention that shields were decorated to recognize troops. This served as a means of communication during large-scale operations. Each legion likely had its own emblem. Tacitus mentions that during the Batavian revolt, two soldiers of Vespasian wore shields of Vitellius. During the battle at Cremona, they could infiltrate enemy troops and sabotage without issue. Possibly, the decoration could also indicate what type of unit it was.

The writer Vegetius from the 5th century added that scuta helped with identification:

"So that soldiers would not be separated from their comrades in the chaos of battle, each cohort had its shields painted in a unique way. The name of each soldier was also written on his scutum, along with the number of the cohort and the century to which he belonged."

• One of the most common images was the thunderbolts of Jupiter. These were also regularly depicted on auxiliary shields. The thunderbolts symbolized the authority of Rome through Jupiter.
• Sometimes these are accompanied by eagle motifs and eagle wings, which also stand for Jupiter.
• Another popular motif was the wolf, which protects or feeds Romulus and Remus. This symbolism has its origins in Proto-Indo-European mythology. The laurel wreath was also depicted, possibly for units that had performed a special achievement. The torc was depicted as a symbol of loyalty. The lion, bull, boar, capricorn, pegasus, centaur, and trident were also popular symbols. 

Possibly, these symbols stood for their mythological symbolic value as well as the period and region where these legions were established. For example, legions established in Iberia often had the bull, legions established by Emperor Augustus often had the capricorn, and legions established in Northern Italy often had the boar.

In the late Roman Empire, wheel motifs were often depicted on shields, representing Fortuna, Bellona, or Taranis. Emperor Constantine commanded his troops to draw the Christian chi-rho cross on the shields. In the 5th century, rose motifs replaced bull motifs, which can also be associated with Bellona. Many legions replaced their symbolism around this time, II Augusta, for example, embraced a flat circular design. Two imperial 7th legions adopted a ten-pointed star and a wheel with nine spokes. I Italica replaced the boar with a circular motif, and II Italica adopted a wheel with four spokes. 

The exact colors of Roman shields are unclear, as only a few examples have been preserved. However, some sources indicate that white was the dominant colour during the Middle Republican and possibly even the Early Imperial period. Wall paintings from Pompeii, for example, predominantly show white shields, even among gladiators. From the 2nd-3rd century AD, this image changed. Archaeological finds from Dura-Europos show that red then became the dominant colour, with one exception: a shield in light blue. In the 4th and 5th centuries, mosaics and the Notitia Dignitatum show a broader variation with white, red, blue, yellow, and occasionally green.

In antiquity, colors had symbolic meanings. Red and white are suitable for shields, with red standing for war, Mars, and warriorhood. Black was considered unfavorable, associated with mourning and misfortune. Brown and gray were not considered "real colors" and therefore did not appear. Brown was rather ochre-colored. Initially, blue and green were considered barbaric, but from the 1st century AD, they became increasingly common. In Late Antiquity, they were fully accepted as military colors.

The perception of colors changed over the centuries, but black, brown, and gray were never used due to their unfavorable symbolism.

Although red is often associated with Roman shields, it was not always the standard colour. During the Republican period, white was likely more common, and even in the Early Imperial period, it is uncertain whether red was the dominant colour.

Shocked by the colors or symbolism? All our shields are made to be easily repainted to match the colors and symbolism appropriate for your legion. 

It is important to note that the scutum was not the only shield used in the Roman army; there were various types of shields used by different branches of the military. Nevertheless, the scutum became the most famous and became a symbol of Rome and its powerful legionaries.

At the end of the 3rd century, the rectangular scutum seems to have disappeared. Archaeological finds from the 4th century (especially from the fort of Dura Europos) indicate the use of oval or round shields that were not semi-cylindrical, but either bowl-shaped (spherical) or flat. Roman artworks from the period from the end of the 3rd century to the end of Antiquity depict soldiers with oval or round shields.

The best-preserved example, found in Dura Europos in Syria, was 105.5 centimeters high, 41 centimeters wide and 30 centimeters deep (due to the semi-cylindrical shape). The shield is made of strips of wood that are 30 to 80 millimeters wide and 1.5 to 2 millimeters thick. These strips are joined in three layers, resulting in a total thickness of the wooden layer of 4.5 to 6 millimeters. The shield was probably well made and exceptionally sturdy.

The word scutum survived the fall of the Roman Empire and remained in use within the military terminology of the Eastern Roman Empire. Even in the 11th century AD, the Byzantines still referred to their heavy infantry as scutati (Greek: Σκυτατοί).