Roman belts

The belt was perhaps the most important symbol of a Roman soldier. In a sense, it was even more important than the body armor or weapons, which, unlike the belt, were not worn daily. Only Roman soldiers wore decorated belts, which were a symbol of the warrior class. The belt was so important to the Roman soldier that it was considered a severe punishment to take a soldier's belt away, or even to deny him the right to wear it.

The Roman military belt was known as the balteus until the third century AD, when it became known as the cingulum. From the second century, the term balteus was mainly used to refer to the shoulder strap from which the sword hung. As Stefanie Hoss notes (2012), the term balteus could therefore refer to any belt from which the sword hung, which changed as the configuration of the belts evolved. Today, the term balteus is widely used to denote Roman belts from all periods. Paintings show that the leather could also be painted; sometimes red belts are depicted.

Today, the word cingulum is used to define a wide belt from which the gladius hung at the side of the wearer, while balteus is used to describe a shoulder strap with which the sword was worn across or over the shoulder.

The way the sword was worn changed throughout Roman history. The cingulum belt and the balteus system alternated several times in different periods. To use the correct composition, you must first focus on a specific period. 

Images from the late Republican period show that soldiers used a variety of different belts. Sword and dagger could hang from a single belt, or the sword (the gladius) could hang from a shoulder strap, while the dagger (the pugio) hung from a waist belt (as seen on the Arc d'Orange). There are few known decorations of belts from this period. It is possible that most belts from the Republican period were indeed undecorated, or at least without metal fittings.

Late Republican belt fitting is rare. Belts were often worn without further decoration. If belt fitting was used, it usually had simple designs such as circles, rope-like patterns, or crossed motifs. 

The best-known period is that of the early Empire (1st-2nd century AD). The military belt was then a wide strip of leather sometimes with decorative plates. These also ensured that the leather remained stiff and did not roll up under the weight of the hanging weapons. These plates were usually attached to the front of the belt, but sometimes across the entire length.

During the Augustan to Neronian period (circa 27 BC - 68 AD), soldiers are almost always depicted with a pair of belts: one for the sword and one for the pugio (dagger). These belts crossed each other in a so-called "cowboy style." Interestingly, the belt of the dagger was often more elaborately decorated than that of the sword. Belts were adorned with large rectangular plates that often had stamped or engraved designs. One of these belts was the cingulum, to which the pugio was attached. On Trajan's Column (113 AD), the gladius is depicted on the shoulder strap.

The military belt was often combined with a type of "apron" made of leather strips, adorned with metal plates. This "apron" likely had a purely decorative function. Buckles were usually worn at the level of the navel, on the right or left side of the "apron".

Although the cingulum likely had no defensive function, some theories suggest that the sound of the metal bells at the end, caused by the soldier's movement, might have been intended to instill fear in the enemy.

The belt not only had a symbolic and status function but also practical: it provided a firm attachment for equipment such as the lorica (armor), the gladius (sword), and the pugio (dagger). Sometimes pouches or other personal belongings were attached to the belt.

The number of leather strips could vary from 3 to 8. At the beginning of the 2nd century AD, the length of the suspensoria became shorter, and later they disappeared entirely from the traditional equipment of the legionaries. Notably, as a soldier rose in rank, starting from the rank of centurion, the suspensoria were no longer worn. Legates and other high-ranking officers did not even use the cingulum anymore and replaced it with fabric bands attached to their armor.

Roman belt fitting had both a decorative and practical function. Due to the extensive maintenance, Roman belts were often softer than modern belts. The plates provided extra reinforcement for when the belt was loaded with armor. During the early imperial period (Augustus - Nero, or slightly later), two narrow belts were worn, one for the gladius (sword) and one for the pugio (dagger). Although some belt fittings from the 1st century AD were undecorated, or only had a tin or silver layer, most used one of the three main decoration styles.

In the belt fitting, you see the continuation of the late Republican style. Complex stamped decoration appears - most common are the Wolf and Romulus & Remus.  Other examples include a hunting scene or the bust of the emperor, often between crossed cornucopias, and geometric or plant motifs.

Around the middle of the second century, sword belts at the hip were gradually replaced by shoulder straps, similar to what had been the case in the Republican period. These were introduced to carry the new type sword, the spatha. The spatha was much longer than the earlier gladius sword. It was even too long to be easily worn on a hip belt, hence the introduction of a shoulder strap that allowed the sword to be worn higher. This technique was probably not used exclusively for the Spatha.

Despite the introduction of the shoulder strap for the sword, Roman soldiers continued to wear a hip belt, although it now served only as decoration or to hang smaller items such as a dagger or money pouch. The aprons soon disappeared. 

These styles remained in use during the so-called crisis period (circa 235 - 284 AD), although a new wider belt was introduced, fastened with a large ring buckle or a square buckle. These belts, which retained the split end and double terminals, quickly became characteristic of the period.

During the Antonine to Severan period (approximately 138 - 235 AD), belt fitting became long and thin to fit the narrow belts (15-20 mm wide) worn during this period (after the switch to the shoulder strap for the sword). There were four main decorative styles in use.

The first style involved solid rectangular fittings, some of which had a long rectangular opening in the middle, often adorned with peltate or other complex loops at the ends. A second style included solid rectangular plates, decorated with enamel or millefiori decoration, luxury items likely privately acquired by Roman soldiers. The third style consisted of geometric openwork designs, often with scrolls or pelta-shaped ends, which flourished from the mid-2nd century to the early 3rd century AD. Additionally, there were openwork decorations in the form of amphorae, dating from the second half of the 2nd century AD, as well as the type with the Hare and Dog, also from the same period. The fourth style included asymmetrical plates with Celtic trumpet designs, including the "Klosterneuburg" type.

From the late 2nd to the mid-3rd century, belt sets with letters, especially the famous VTERE FELIX type, became popular. They are most common in the middle and lower Danube region's and in Dacia. These sets consisted of individual letters attached to the belt with nails on the back. The most common type actually spelled FELIX (on the buckle) and VTERE when the belt was worn. "Vtere felix" literally means "Be happy" or "Live happily." It is a wish for happiness or prosperity for the person addressed. Other words or phrases exist, such as MNHMWN, LEONTI or LEONI, LEG III CYR, PRIMA, and variations of VICTORIA or VICT, although such sets are much rarer than the VTERE FELIX set. These belts were usually quite narrow, about 25-35 mm wide, and split at the end into two narrow straps, each ending in a narrow tip. The type flourished approximately from 190-230 AD.

From the second quarter of the 3rd century, many belts became wider and had a large buckle. The narrow belt ends of these belts varied in shape and could be teardrop-shaped, heart-shaped, pear-shaped, ring-shaped, phallic-shaped, triangular, ring-pommel-shaped, and even have the shape of a beneficiarius point.

During the Late Roman period (circa 270 - mid-5th century), broader belts dominated. These belts were usually wide and had propeller-shaped decoration. By the beginning of the 5th century, many belts had become more than 10 cm wide. The style of decoration spread from Germanic areas in the late 4th century AD to Roman-controlled areas.

From the second quarter of the 3rd century, many belts became wider and had a large buckle. The narrow belt ends of these belts varied in shape and could be teardrop-shaped, heart-shaped, pear-shaped, ring-shaped, phallic-shaped, triangular, or ring-pommel-shaped and even have the shape of a beneficiarius point.

During the Late Roman period (approximately 270 AD to the 5th century), the belt width varied greatly (approximately 20-105 mm), although many belts appeared to be 50-75 mm wide. These wide belts were reinforced with up to 10 high metal reinforcements, usually in the form of a propeller, although sometimes in the form of a simple bar. 

The way Roman soldiers wore their belts varied by time period. The belt fitting also evolved over time. Belts were a practical tool for both civilians and soldiers, used to hang objects and keep clothing and armor in place. 

The Late Roman fashion of wearing wide belts was probably influenced by the Germans, and the openwork belt fitting also appears to show artistic influences similar to those of the Germanic Zierscheibe. Notably, the belt for Roman soldiers also fulfilled a symbolic function as a membership of the warrior class. This tradition can already be seen around 3,500 BC in the warrior culture of the Proto-Indo-European steppe herders. Finally, the fashion of wearing the shoulder strap in a certain way was likely a gradual process where this adjustment was functional for wearing the spatha properly, but this fashion was also used among the gladius.