The Pugio

The pugio was a dagger used by Roman legionaries as a secondary weapon. It was part of the "military belt" always worn by the soldiers. Historically, this belt was the symbol that the wearer participated in the warrior class. This tradition can be traced all the way back to the Proto-Indo-European ancestors of the Romans (3,500 BC).

Attempts to classify the pugio as a utility knife are misleading, as the shape of the pugio is not suitable for this purpose. Archaeological excavations and relief images strongly associate the pugio with the Roman army.

Because the pugio was part of the military belt and this was an important status symbol, it is remarkable that the legionnaire invested in this part of his equipment from his own salary. It is possible that pugiones were purchased privately or modified upon request. This resulted in the 1st century AD in well-known pugio's with reduced grips and scabbards. It was worn on the left side of the body, attached to the cingulum that the soldier wore around his waist. The handle was shaped to fit well in the hand, and the blade was made of iron or bronze. 

Originally, it was long thought that the pugio was primarily a decorative or symbolic item. This was reinforced by the fact that the scabbard and sometimes the pugio itself are often richly decorated. Some archaeologists suggest that it was a utility knife for both Roman citizens and soldiers. The pugio is known for being used to kill Julius Caesar and for the suicide of senators. Senators always had a military career due to the cursus honorarium ("career of honor"), which makes sense because the aristocratic class was part of the warrior class. It was probably impossible to serve as a senator without military experience, and they therefore still had the pugio from their service time. The pugio was also used by gladiators, which again indicates that these weapons did not serve only a ceremonial or decorative purpose. 

Notably, the Roman pugio is depicted exclusively on tombstones in Northwest Europe, with an emphasis on the Rhine region. Archaeological findings also point to this area as the region where the pugio was used. Possibly because it aligned with the Celtic and Germanic style of warfare. To clarify this, we take you further back in time.

The Proto-Indo-European steppe herders were the first peoples to ride the horse around 4,000 - 3,800 BC. Initially, this offered more mobility for the warrior class, while fighting was not done on horseback. War bands could now raid livestock from further away, where they were not bound by the oath-bound agreements that neighboring tribes had with each other. West of the Pontic-Caspian steppe, they formed cultures such as the Yamnaya and Corded Ware cultures and migrated around 3,500 BC towards the west, while other Proto-Indo-European peoples later, around 3,500 - 3,000 BC, moved eastward. There, cultures such as the Andronovo culture emerged, from which Indo-Aryan peoples like the Persians, Scythians, and Vedic peoples originated.

Both branches of the Proto-Indo-Europeans had a strong warrior culture, in which martial deeds, such as cattle raiding, were revered. This is reflected in works like the Greek Iliad, the Vedic Mahabharata, and the Old Norse mythology. The eastern branch developed more towards cavalry warfare, the Andronovo culture introduced the chariot, the Persian Empire formed large cavalry armies, and the Scythian hordes are known for their formidable cavalry. The Celts and Germans, on the other hand, were less focused on cavalry and lived in forested areas, which led their warfare to develop in ambushes and stealth actions as they moved away from their original nomadic origins. In contrast to their eastern counterparts, who developed more in archery on horseback and large cavalry formations.

Although the military tactics differed, the warrior culture of both branches remained similar. The difference in military tactics is highlighted during the Persian-Greek conflicts between the 5th and 3rd centuries BC. The Persians had a formidable cavalry while they hired Greek city-states to provide heavy infantry in the form of the phalanx. The Romans were also known for their weak cavalry, for which they often enlisted Celts and Germans, who were nevertheless better at cavalry tactics.

Despite the differences in military tactics, both Greek and Roman cultures continued to honor their Proto-Indo-European horse culture. This can be seen in the Greek sea god Poseidon, who is also the god of horses, and in the famous Trojan Horse. The Romans celebrated the so-called October Horse, a ritual after the harvest. Their most popular spectacle was not gladiatorial games but chariot racing.

Because the Roman Empire dealt with both the eastern and western branches of the Indo-European peoples, this required different approaches to warfare. The pugio is an expression of this. This weapon was ideal for close combat and surprise attacks, in which the Germans and Celts excelled. Tacitus mentions the use of the pugio during the siege of a Roman camp in 69 AD during the Batavian revolts (Historiae, Book IV). Here he describes how the Roman defenders managed to fend off enemies trying to climb the palisades with daggers and swords.

Like the gladius, the pugio was primarily a thrusting weapon, which according to the Romans was the most effective type of weapon. The late Roman writer Vegetius writes about this:

"A blow with the edge, however powerfully delivered, seldom kills... On the other hand, a thrust, even if it penetrates only two inches deep, is usually fatal... The body is covered during the thrust, and the opponent receives the point before he sees the sword. This was the fighting method the Romans mainly used..."

It is often suggested that the pugio is derived from the Celtiberian daggers, but there is a difference between the Iberians and the Celtiberians. Originally, the pugio was a direct copy of the Iberian dagger. It was added to the Roman arsenal during the 2nd Punic War against Carthage. The blade was short and narrow, and in the middle of the grip there was a knob for extra grip. These early pugios had no decoration on the scabbard and the blade featured a rib in the middle. This type of pugio was used until the end of the 1st century AD.

From the end of the 1st century, the pugio underwent significant changes. The round pommel at the back became flat on the top, the blade acquired a leaf-shaped motif, and the pugios became slightly longer than their predecessors. Both the weapon and the scabbard were richly decorated. The grip was often made of wood or bone.

In the 2nd half of the 1st century AD, a new production method was developed, making the pugio cheaper to produce. The blade became straight and longer, and less decoration was used. The focus shifted more towards functionality. Probably, handles resembling those of the gladius became common for the pugio.

The final phase in the development of the pugio began sometime in the 2nd half of the 2nd century AD and lasted into the 3rd century AD. Around this time, the pugiones became significantly longer, with a blade of 45 cm long and up to 8 cm wide. In classical literature, these are sometimes referred to as the semispata, which literally means 'half-sword'. These pugios remained in use until the end of the 3rd century AD. After that, the use of this weapon ceased completely.

The pugio was worn in a scabbard, and by the second quarter of the 1st century AD, three different types of scabbards existed. All scabbards had four suspension rings and a bulbous extension at the bottom, pierced by a large rivet. Evidence from images and wear patterns on preserved scabbards shows that the two lower rings were usually not used.

The first type of scabbard (type 'A') consisted of a curved metal plate, usually made of iron, on both the front and back, enclosing a wooden lining. The front of this plate was often beautifully decorated with inlaid bronze, silver, niello, and colored enamel (red, yellow, or green). This scabbard had round suspension rings that could move freely, attached with bifurcated mounts riveted to the scabbard.

The second type of scabbard (type 'B') was made of wood, probably covered with leather. A metal plate was attached at the front, usually iron, which was quite flat and decorated with inlaid silver (or sometimes tin) and enamel. The suspension rings were shaped like small Roman military buckles and were hinged to the sides of the scabbard.

The third type, also known as the 'frame type', was made of iron. It consisted of two curved channels that converged at the bottom and were processed there into a flattened round terminal extension. Two horizontal bands at the top and middle of the scabbard held the suspension rings, which were round, similar to those of type 'A'. This scabbard was probably constructed around a wooden core, but this has not been preserved in the archaeological finds.