The kopis & falcata

The term kopis referred in ancient Greece to a heavy 'cutlass' often with a forward-curving blade, which was mainly used as a tool for cutting meat, for ritual slaughter and animal sacrifices, or to a single-edged cutting "chopping and thrusting sword" with a similarly shaped blade. Probably, the kopis was therefore an evolution of a type of utility knife. 

The term is derived from the Greek word κοπίς (kopis), plural κοπίδες (kopides), originating from κόπτω (koptō), which means "to cut, to strike." 

The kopis was a one-handed weapon. Early examples had a blade length up to 65 cm, making them nearly equal in size to the spatha. Later kopis swords from Macedonia were generally shorter, with a blade length of about 48 cm. The kopis had a single-edged blade, with the tip curving forward. The cutting edge was concave near the grip but became convex towards the tip. This shape, often called "recurved," distributes the weight in a way that allowed the kopis to deliver a blow with the momentum of a axe, while retaining the long cutting edge of a sword and offering some ability to thrust. The kopis was carried on the left side in a wooden scabbard covered with leather and hung from a shoulder strap (baldric).

Some historians and archaeologists claim that the sword had an Etruscan origin, as similar swords have been found in Etruria as early as the 7th century BC, but this is a subject of debate. 

The difference in meaning between kopis and makhaira (μάχαιρα, another Greek word for "chopping knife," "short sword" or "dagger") is not entirely clear in ancient texts. Modern specialists generally distinguish between single-edged cutting swords: specimens with a forward curve are called kopides, while those without a curve are called makhairai.

The Greek word μάχαιρα (mákhaira is related to μάχη (mákhē) "a fight", μάχεσθαι (mákhesthai) "to fight". It is derived from the Proto-Indo-European magh-.

The Greek poet Homer from the eighth century BC does not mention the makhaira in his work as a weapon of war, but as a household knife of not too large dimensions. In texts from his time, μάχαιρα has various meanings and can denote almost any type of knife or sword, even a surgical scalpel, but in a military context, it often refers to a type of single-edged sword; a sword primarily designed for cutting rather than stabbing. In later Greek texts, such as the Koine variants of the New Testament, the word makhaira is used to generally refer to a sword, without making a specific distinction between native knives and the gladius of the Roman soldier. 

Makhaira entered classical Latin as machaera, "a sword". The dimachaerus ('one with two swords') was a type of Roman gladiator who fought with a sword in both hands. In modern Greek, μαχαίρι means "knife".

Makhaira swords existed in various sizes and shapes and were not exclusively Greek. Greek art from the Persian wars shows that Spartan and Persian armies used single-edged swords, but Persian records indicate that their primary infantry sword was double-edged and straight, similar to the Greek xiphos (which resembles the Persian acinaces). Greek vase paintings begin to rarely depict makhairai from about 530 BC, although the depiction of these swords became more common on 'red figure' ceramics from about 510 BC.

The makhaira depicted in artworks had a single cutting edge, with a widened, convex section towards the tip. This concentrated the balance towards this part of the blade, allowing for particularly powerful cuts. This shape made it possible to hack through bone with a makhaira.

Despite their relatively frequent depictions in art, archaeological remains of both the kopis and the makhaira are rare. Archaeological evidence suggests that the makhaira was more common in areas more focused on the use of cavalry than the phalanx.

The Ancient Greeks often used single-edged swords in warfare, as evidenced by art and literature. The xiphos, a double-edged, straight, and more versatile combat sword, however, appears more frequently in depictions. Hoplites preferred straight swords, but the forward-curved kopis was particularly suited for cavalry battles. This does not mean that the kopis was used exclusively by cavalry. The general and writer Xenophon recommended in his work On Horsemanship (Peri Hippikēs) the use of a single-edged kopis (which he did not distinguish from the makhaira) for the cavalry;

"I recommend a kopis instead of a xiphos, because from the height of a horse, the edge of a makhaira is more useful than the thrust of a xiphos".  

His exact wording suggests that the kopis possibly was seen as a specific variant within a broader category of swords, with makhaira being a general term for single-edged cutting swords. Furthermore, he also used the term for Persian and Egyptian swords. Greek art from his time depicts Persian soldiers wielding a kopis or a axe instead of the straight Persian akinakes-sword.

The historians Euripides and Plutarch used the term kopis to refer to a knife that was used for slaughtering meat. In his novel about the campaigns of Alexander the Great, the Roman author Curtius Rufus mentions the kopides in a battle against the Indians:

"Lightly curved swords resembling sickles were called kopides, and they were used to cut off the trunks of elephants."

The kopis was probably borrowed by the Greeks from the Persians in the 6th century BC. Herodotus describes this type of weapon used by the Persian heavy cavalry. Archaeological finds in Greece show blade lengths ranging from 53 to 70 cm. Some specimens have a straight cutting edge, giving them an appearance similar to a classic machete.

The historian Polybius also refers to Iberian swords as machaera, possibly referring to the falcata, given the similarities with the Greek makhaira. However, he also uses this name for the straight swords used by the Gauls and even the Romans themselves. The fact that other tribes from Hispania also used straight swords, which later inspired the Roman gladius, makes his distinctive naming of these weapons less clear.

Swords with a similar construction were used by various peoples in different eras, with variations in names and blade length. The earliest known weapon of this type is considered to be the Ancient Egyptian khopesh, which had a curved blade derived from a sickle. The khopesh could have an external, internal, or even a double-edged edge and notably had a long (50-60 cm) grip, making it resemble a shortened thrusting spear. The kopis, on the other hand, had an inward-curved cutting edge and a saber-like grip. This weapon likely originated in Mesopotamia and later spread through the Medes to Greece, where it reached its greatest popularity on the Iberian Peninsula, where it is called the falcata. 

This type of sword was still found on the battlefield thousands of years later; the yatagan, a sword used during the Ottoman period in the Balkans and Anatolia, was possibly a direct descendant of the kopis, as well as the Nepalese kukri.

The falcata is a type of sword that was directly derived from the Greek kopis, which was brought by Greek colonists to the Iberian Peninsula. The falcata was typical of pre-Roman Iberia. This type of sword was used with great success in warfare on the Iberian Peninsula and is strongly associated with the southern Iberian tribes, alongside other peoples of Hispania. The falcata was highly valued by the Carthaginians General Hannibal, who equipped his troops with it during the Second Punic War. 

Early specimens of the falcata from the 5th-4th century BC resemble Greek kopides, with a hilt shaped like a bird's head or other animal head. Later, the ornate elements of the Greeks were replaced by a more functional form that fit well in the hand, while the blade took on its definitive shape.

The name falcata is not Roman, although classical Latin vocabulary included a term ensis falcatus, but this seemed to refer more to a falx (sickle sword) or a harpe (mythical sword with a hook shape). The term as we know it originated from a mistranslation when a translator from Latin misunderstood the aforementioned descriptive phrase "ensis falcatus" ("a sword curved like a sickle") and took it for a specific weapon term. Nonetheless, in the 19th century, the name "falcata" became very popular among archaeologists and is now widely used in scientific literature. The Romans themselves simply called this weapon the "Spanish sword" – machaera Hispana.

The blade of both the kopis and the falcata widens towards the tip, shifting the center of gravity further from the hand. This increases the kinetic energy of the strike and the forward curvature offers much stronger cutting power than a straight sword. According to the Romans, no helmet or armor could withstand a blow from a falcata.

Although these swords appear very similar, there are still a few small differences to be noted. The falcata had a single-edged blade that curved forward. The cutting edge was concave near the grip and became convex at the tip. This shape distributed the weight so that the falcata retained both the striking power of a axe and the long cutting edge of a sword, while also being able to perform thrusting attacks. The hilt often had a hook shape, with an end designed like the head of a horse or bird. Sometimes there was a thin chain that connected the hooked pommel to the grip. Although the falcata was almost identical to the Greek kopis, it distinguished itself by having a sharpened false edge in the second half of the blade.

During the Second Punic War, the Roman scutum (shield) was used by both sides. These were oval shields that remained in use until the 1st century BC. It was known that the blows from the Iberian falcata could cut through the scutum or irreparably damage it; this led to the legionary being left unprotected and becoming an easy target in close combat or for projectiles. Partly because of this, the design of the scutum was modified in the 1st century BC and equipped with steel edges. 

The Roman armies, both during the Second Punic War and later in the conquest of Hispania, were surprised by the high quality of the weapons used by Iberian mercenaries and warriors.

The excellent quality of the falcata was not only due to the shape but also to the quality of the steel. Nowadays, it is sometimes claimed that this quality was due to the fact that Iberian steel plates were buried in the ground for two to three years to allow the weaker steel to corrode. This is not true, as high-quality steel is actually more susceptible to corrosion due to the higher carbon content than steel of lower quality. In reality, steel for weapons was produced by forging and joining layers of steel through fire welding – a common technique in ironworking.

In the early period of the Iberian tribes, the falcata was more often used as a ceremonial weapon than for actual fighting: many finely decorated falcata’s such as the famous Falcata de Almedinilla have been found in graves. The rarity of the falcata in the early period was due to the high cost and scarcity of iron in the region.

In De Beneficiis (On Benefits), Book V, Chapter 24, the Roman writer Seneca told the story of a veteran who presents his case to Julius Caesar. The veteran reminds Caesar of an incident near Sucro, where Caesar sprained his ankle and a soldier brought him water in his helmet. The old soldier states that it was him and continues that during the battle of Munda he lost his eye and his skull was crushed. He noted that his helmet was split by a "Spanish machete" (machaera Hispana).