Introduction: Balkan Prehistory

During the Neolithic, various cultural complexes flourished in Southeastern Europe. Archaeologists have identified different Neolithic cultures, such as the Cucuteni culture (4500–3500 BC), the Starčevo culture (6500–4000 BC), the Vinča culture (5500–3000 BC), the Linear Pottery culture (LBK) (5500–4500 BC), and the Ezero culture (3300–2700 BC). These peoples originated from Neolithic farmers who settled in Europe from Anatolia.

One of the most fascinating discoveries from the early Chalcolithic is the Varna culture in present-day Bulgaria (4600–4200 BC). They were early experimenters in copper making and later alloying bronze. Excavations in Varna have uncovered an impressive gold treasure, which is among the oldest in the world. These jewelry and items testify to a refined culture with complex ideas about the afterlife. 

Between 3000 and 2500 BC, the Proto-Indo-European steppe herders migrated towards the Balkans. Between 3000 and 2500 BC, the herders from the Yamnaya steppe migrated to the Balkans. Here they mixed with the local population, leading to a complex blend of genetic and cultural influences. From this fusion, speakers of languages such as Albanian, Hellenic, and other Paleo-Balkan languages eventually emerged. Their culture was based on oath-bound reciprocity, and they practiced a dharmic religion. 

The interaction between these migrants and the indigenous communities formed a crucial basic for the further development of European civilizations. The traces of these societies are visible not only in the artifacts they left behind but also in the languages, traditions, and genetic composition that characterize Europe today.

Around 1000 BC, the Illyrian tribes appeared in the area now known as Albania, and their influence extended along the Adriatic Sea to what are now Montenegro, Kosovo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, parts of Serbia, and North Macedonia. These groups were early Indo-European communities.

The Thracians, another major group from this period, lived in the area known as Thrace, which now largely corresponds to Bulgaria. They also inhabited parts of Romania, northeastern Greece, European Turkey, eastern Serbia, and North Macedonia. The Thracians are often associated with a rich mythology, art, and traditions. Their relatives, the Dacians, were based in present-day Romania and shared many cultural and linguistic similarities with the Thracians.

Another group from this time are the Phrygians. Initially, they settled on the southern Balkans, but later they moved further and migrated to Asia Minor (present-day Turkey). Although the Phrygian language is now extinct, it played a role in the early history of Indo-European languages.

The Illyrians were among the three main Paleo-Balkan peoples, along with the Thracians and the Greeks. Their land, later called Illyria by Greek and Roman writers, included large parts of present-day Albania, Montenegro, Kosovo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, parts of Slovenia, and western Serbia. This area extended from the Adriatic Sea in the west to the Drava River in the north, the Morava River in the east, and the Ceraunian Mountains in the south.

The first known reference to the Illyrians comes from 600 BC in the works of Hecataeus of Miletus, a Greek writer. The name "Illyrians" was probably first used to denote a specific tribe. It is unlikely that all groups labeled as Illyrians saw themselves as one people. The Greeks expanded the name and used it to describe various tribes with similar customs and languages.

The Illyrians emerged from a mixture of Indo-European Yamnaya groups and the local Neolithic population in the Balkans around 2500 BC. This mix led to the formation of the Proto-Illyrian cultures, which developed into the historical Illyrians in the Bronze Age and Iron Age.

Research into Illyrian names (onomastics) and material culture has revealed two major cultural areas: the southern Illyrian area and the Dalmatian-Pannonian area. In between lay the region of the Dardani, a group with features of both zones. Meanwhile, groups such as the Dauni, Peuceti, and Messapi (collectively known as the Iapygians) migrated from Illyria to Southern Italy, where they introduced the Messapic language.

The Thracians were an Indo-European speaking people who lived in antiquity in Southeast Europe. They resided in areas now known as Bulgaria, Romania, North Macedonia, Northern Greece, and parts of Anatolia (Turkey).

The Thracians also emerged from a mix of Proto-Indo-Europeans and early European farmers. Around 3500 BC, their culture developed during the Bronze Age. They were divided into tribes such as the Getae and Dacians. Greek and Roman writers often regarded them as "uncivilized" and "warlike," but they were known for their poetry, music, and military skills.

Their first organized state was the Odrysian kingdom, founded in 500 BC. This kingdom reached its peak under King Teres I and his successors. Around 340 BC, it became part of the Macedonian Empire. After the death of Alexander the Great, it regained some of its independence, but later the Thracians were gradually conquered by the Romans. A well-known Thracian was Spartacus, who led a major slave revolt against the Romans in 73 BC.

The Dacians were an ancient Indo-European people who lived in the region of Dacia, which was primarily located in present-day Romania and Moldova. These groups developed into the proto-Thracians, who later in the Iron Age evolved into the Geto-Dacians in the area of the Danube and the Carpathians. They also inhabited parts of Ukraine, Eastern Serbia, Northern Bulgaria, Slovakia, Hungary, and Southern Poland. They are considered a part of the Thracians and had much contact with neighboring peoples such as the Scythians, Celts, and Romans. 

There are various ideas about the origin of the name "Dacians":

Greek and Roman forms: Greeks used names like Daoi, while the Romans said Dacus.

Connection with wolves: Some think the name is related to the word daos (wolf) from the Phrygian language, as wolves were important in Indo-European and Dacian culture. This is also reflected in their Draco, a flag with a wolf's head.

Indo-European roots: Other researchers think the name comes from words such as dhe- ("to place") or daca ("knife").

Some scholars see a link with the Dahae, an Indo-European people from near the Caspian Sea, which may indicate historical connections.

Scythians and Agathyrsi: The Agathyrsi, a people from the Pontic Steppe, mingled with the Thracian population and contributed to the formation of Dacian culture.

Celts: From the 4th century BC, the Celts came to the area. Although they had influence, the Dacians managed to defend their land against Celtic groups such as the Boii.

The Phrygians were an ancient Indo-European people who lived in central-western Anatolia, present-day Turkey. Ancient Greek writers used the term "Phrygians" to describe a broad group of cultural communities in Anatolia, rather than a single tribe or nation. The ethnic and linguistic unity of this group is therefore a subject of debate.

According to Herodotus, the Phrygians originally lived in the southern Balkans under the name Bryges (or Briges). After their migration to Anatolia via the Hellespont, they changed their name to Phrygians. Although many historians believe this migration took place around 1200 BC, archaeologists doubt this theory due to the lack of evidence. After the fall of the Hittite Empire around 1180 BC, the Phrygians settled in Anatolia. Here they developed a rich culture, with the city of Gordium as their capital. The Phrygian kingdom reached its peak in 800 BC, but around 690 BC it was struck by an invasion of the Cimmerians. Later, Phrygia was taken over by Lydia, the Persian Empire, and eventually Rome. By 700 AD, the Phrygian language had become extinct.

The Phrygians worshiped the mother goddess Cybele, whom they called "Matar," meaning "mother." She was often depicted with a crown, veil, and a lion by her side. Besides Cybele, there was Sabazios, the sky god who was depicted on horseback. Other gods they worshiped included Artemis, Dionysos, and the moon god Men. 

After the arrival of the Dorians and the collapse of the Mycenaean bronze Age, a period followed known as the Greek Dark Ages, or the Geometric Period. Around 900-800 BC, classical Greek culture began to develop on the southern Balkan Peninsula, the Aegean Islands, and in the western Greek colonies of Asia Minor. This flourishing reached its peak in 600-500 BC, with the emergence of democracy in Athens. In 400 BC, Hellenistic culture expanded through the empire of Alexander the Great.

The Greeks played an important role in the development of trade routes in the Balkans. Between 700 and 300 BC, they founded colonies along the coasts of the Black Sea, Asia Minor, Dalmatia, and Southern Italy (Magna Graecia), promoting trade and cultural exchange.

The Dorians were one of the four major ethnic groups in ancient Greece, alongside the Aeolians, Achaeans, and Ionians. They are often simply called "the Dorians," a term first mentioned in the Odyssey, where they are described as inhabitants of Crete. The Dorians were known for their distinct cultures and ways of life. Cities like Corinth were active trade centers, while Sparta was more isolated and militaristic. Despite these differences, the Dorians were united by their dialect, Doric Greek, and shared a number of common traditions.

There are various theories about where the Dorians originally came from. A common theory is that they came from the mountainous regions of Greece, such as Macedonia and Epirus. Over time, the Dorians migrated south, to the Peloponnese and some Aegean islands. The spread of the Doric dialect is often linked to a historical event, the so-called "Dorian Invasion" or the "Return of the Heraclidae," which according to some theories led to the displacement of the Ionic dialect from the Peloponnese by the Doric dialect.

The theory of the Dorian Invasion suggests that the West Greek Dorians conquered the Peloponnese and displaced the East Greek Ionic populations, although there is no hard evidence for this invasion. Most scholars agree that the Doric dialect spread throughout the region, with the Dorians later establishing colonies throughout Greece and beyond.

After settling in the Peloponnese, the Dorians also settled on islands such as Rhodes and Crete, and in Asian Asia Minor and Sicily. In Asia Minor, they formed the Dorian Hexapolis, the six major Dorian cities: Halicarnassus (modern Bodrum), Knidos, Kos, Lindos, Kameiros, and Ialyssos on the island of Rhodes. The Dorians also founded colonies in Southern Italy, especially in Sicily, where they established cities like Syracuse. These colonies often competed with Ionic cities, and the Dorians strongly adhered to their own traditions.

The name "Dorians" likely comes from the region of Doris in central Greece, where they first appeared according to some theories. Other explanations suggest that the name originates from the Greek word doris, meaning "forest" or "mountainous area," referring to their mountainous homeland. Another theory links the name to the Greek word doru, which means "spear", implying that the Dorians were a people of warriors, or "spear-bearers."

The Dorians were associated with some significant cultural and political characteristics, particularly Sparta, which became one of the most powerful city-states of ancient Greece. The Spartan military system, with its emphasis on discipline and simplicity, was seen as a hallmark of Doric society, and Doric identity played a major role in how Sparta viewed itself and in the history of Sparta.

The Achaeans lived in the region of Achaea in the northern part of the Peloponnese and played an active role in the colonization of Italy, where they founded the city of Croton. Unlike the other major Greek tribes, the Achaeans did not have a distinct language in the classical period, but used a form of Doric Greek.

The origin of the name "Achaeans" is unknown. Robert S. P. Beekes suggested that it might derive from a Pre-Greek word *Akaywa-. Margalit Finkelberg, while admitting that the ultimate origin is unknown, proposed an intermediate Greek form: *Ἀχαϝyοί.

Homer also used the term "Achaeans" to refer to all Greeks, and it might relate to the Hittite term "Ahhiyawa," which is believed to refer to Mycenaean Greece or a part of it.

In classical times, the Achaeans lived in the region of Achaea in the northern part of the Peloponnese. They later founded colonies in Italy, including the cities of Croton and Sybaris. The Achaeans spoke Achaean Doric Greek, a variant of Doric Greek. In the Hellenistic period, an Achaean Doric koine developed, which was eventually replaced by Attic-based Koine Greek in 200 BC.

The Achaeans strengthened their common identity in 600 BC, in response to the rise of the city-state of Sicyon in the east and Sparta in the south, and later in 500 BC in response to the expansion of the Achaemenids. Herodotus described the Achaeans as a united people consisting of 12 city-states: Pellene, Aegeira, Aeges, Boura, Helike, Aegion, Rhypes, Patrai, Pherae, Olenos, Dyme, and Tritaia.

The rise of Macedonia in the late 4th century BC, however, led to the downfall of the first Achaean League, as the Macedonians took control of many of the League's city-states and the federal government of the Achaeans barely functioned.

After the defeat of Macedonia by the Romans in the early 2nd century BC, the Achaean League was able to defeat Sparta and gain control over the entire Peloponnesus. However, as Roman influence in the region grew, the Achaeans rebelled against Roman domination, leading to the Achaean War. The Achaeans were defeated in the Battle of Corinth in 146 BC, and the League was dissolved by the Romans.

The Ionians were one of the four major tribes into which the ancient Greeks divided themselves. The Ionic language was one of the three major dialects in the Greek world, alongside the Doric and Aeolic dialects.

In classical times, the term "Ionic" had several meanings. In the narrowest sense, it referred to the region of Ionia in Asia Minor. In a broader sense, the name was used for all people who spoke the Ionic dialect, which also included the Greek population of Euboea, the Cyclades, and many cities founded by Ionian colonists. In the broadest sense, it could refer to anyone who spoke a language from the East Greek group, including Attic.

In contrast to the austere and militaristic Dorians, the Ionians were known for their love of philosophy, art, democracy, and pleasure—qualities particularly expressed by the Athenians. Ionian philosophy, centered in Miletus, focused on seeking non-supernatural explanations for natural phenomena and seeking rational explanations of the universe, laying the basic for scientific inquiry and rational thinking in Western philosophy.

The origin of the word "Ionians" (Ἴωνες or Ἰᾱ́ϝoνες) is uncertain. There are several theories:

• It could derive from a Proto-Indo-European onomatopoeic root *wi- or *woi-, expressing a cry of people coming to help others. According to Pokorny, *Iāwones could mean "worshipers of Apollo," based on the cry iē paiēn uttered during his worship.
• It might refer to an unknown ancient name for an island population in the eastern Mediterranean.
• Another theory is that it originates from a Proto-Indo-European root *uiH-, meaning "strength."

In 513 BC, the Achaemenid army under the leadership of Darius I invaded the Balkans. They were in search of the Western Scythians, who roamed north of the Danube. The army conquered various Thracian peoples and the regions around the Black Sea, including parts of present-day Bulgaria, Romania, Ukraine, and Russia. The conquest of the Balkans was completed by Darius’ commander Megabazus. In 512-511 BC, the Macedonian King Amyntas I accepted the domination of the Achaemenids and made his kingdom a vassal state of Persia. The Macedonian and Persian elites often intermarried, which strengthened the relations between the two.

After the Ionian Revolt, Mardonius restored Persian power in the Balkans in 492 BC, which not only led to the reconquest of Thrace but also the complete subjugation of Macedonia. With the support of Persia, the Macedonians could expand their influence, helping them in their conflicts with other Balkan tribes such as the Paeonians and the Greeks. Macedonian soldiers even fought against Athens and Sparta in Xerxes' army.

Although Persian rule was overthrown after Xerxes' failed invasion, the Macedonians and Thracians continued to adopt many influences from the Achaemenids in the 5th and 4th centuries BC, both culturally and economically. Archaeological findings in Sindos and Vergina testify to this.

In Thrace, the Odrysian kingdom emerged around 470 BC, following the Persian defeat in Greece. This kingdom had its capital in Seuthopolis, near present-day Kazanlak in Bulgaria. Other tribal formations, such as in Dacia, also developed, for example under King Oroles in the 2nd century BC. The Illyrians inhabited the Adriatic coast. Initially, the name "Illyrii" referred to a specific group around Lake Skadar, between Albania and Montenegro. Later, the Greeks and Romans used this term to describe a larger area and various tribes.

In the 4th century BC, the Dardanian leader Bardylis established a powerful kingdom in Illyria, with the cities of Scodra (present-day Shkodra, Albania) and Rhizon (present-day Risan, Montenegro) as important centers. In 359 BC, the Macedonian king Perdiccas III was killed by the Illyrians. Three years later, Philip II of Macedonia defeated the Illyrians and expanded Macedonia's territory to Lake Ohrid (now North Macedonia). In 335 BC, Alexander the Great defeated the Illyrian leader Cleitus and took Illyrian soldiers with him in his conquest of Persia.

After Alexander's death in 323 BC, the Greek states resumed internal conflicts, while in the north, Illyrian kingdoms reformed. In 312 BC, King Glaukias of Illyria captured the city of Epidamnus. By the end of the 3rd century BC, an Illyrian kingdom from Scodra managed parts of northern Albania and the coast of Montenegro. Under Queen Teuta, the Illyrians attacked Roman merchant ships, giving the Romans a reason to invade the Balkans.

In the Illyrian wars of 229 BC and 219 BC, the Romans conquered Illyrian settlements and suppressed piracy in the Adriatic Sea. In 168 BC, the Romans defeated Gentius, the last king of Illyria, and established four client republics under Roman control. Later, the region became directly a province of Rome, with Scodra as the capital. At the same time, the Romans defeated Perseus, the last king of Macedonia, and divided the area into the provinces of Macedonia, Achaia, and Epirus.

From 200 BC, the Roman Republic began to conquer the Balkan region and transform it into one of the most prosperous and stable regionss of the Roman Empire. To this day, the legacy of the Roman Empire is clearly visible in the many monuments and artifacts scattered across the Balkans, especially in the languages derived from Latin and spoken by nearly 25 million people in the area (the Eastern Romance languages). Yet, the Roman influence did not succeed in displacing the Greek and indigenous culture, which maintained a dominant status in the eastern half of the Empire and remained strong in the southern Balkans.