Legionary Caesar’s Civil Wars 49-45 BC

This blog follows the Roman legionary Titus of the thirteenth legion in 49 BC. He has crossed the Rubicon with his commander Gaius Julius Caesar and is preparing to confront the army of the hostile general Pompey on the battlefield. Rome is on the brink of plunging into a new civil war: although Titus is loyal to Caesar, he fears that the period of conflict he has experienced throughout his life will bring an end to the Roman Republic.

The late Roman Republic had a different form of democracy than we have today. Only male Roman citizens had voting rights and legal personality. The lower classes in society had little influence with their vote. They were dependent on their patron for political matters, with whom they maintained a client-patron relationship. These relationships were based on cosmic reciprocity and came with obligations. The more clients a patron had, the more prestige and political influence he could exert. At the same time, it was a disgrace for a patron to let his clients live in poverty. He protected them in the event of a legal dispute and functioned as a bank. This client-patron relationship was non-binding, and both parties could terminate the cooperation.

Throughout the history of the late Republic of Rome, the legions played an important political role. Due to the professionalization of the army, campaigns lasted longer, and legionaries became dependent on their pay and war booty, which they received from their general, for their livelihood. As a result, they became loyal to individual commanders, whom they regarded as their patron. However, they were not particularly loyal to the Roman senate.

In the late republic, there had been a series of political conflicts between (simply put) two different political groups, the populares who were in favor of land reform and more political participation for the plebs and proletariat, and the aristocratic optimates who were against this. The civil wars came to an end with the reign of terror of the optimates general Sulla between 82-80 BC. Through his military power, he was able to appoint himself as dictator and for two years, with his bloody proscriptions, he would massively murder his political opponents and seize their possessions for himself and his allies. He also introduced major political reforms that (with and without violence) greatly limited the power of the people's tribunes. As a result, the balance of power in the government came to lie almost entirely with the aristocracy.

This led to a great fear after his death that a legion under another demagogue like Sulla could pose a threat to Rome. In the coming years, this was acknowledged by the senate, and Roman governors were not allowed to leave their provinces with their legions. It was also strictly forbidden for Roman military leaders to enter Italy with a mobilized force: for triumphal processions within the city, the army had to be officially discharged first.

The conflict between the optimates and populares was completely halted by Sulla's bloody regime. However, sympathies persisted, and in 70 BC, Gnaeus Pompeius and Marcus Licinius Crassus, the two most powerful generals of the republic, were made consuls together to reverse Sulla's strong restrictions against the tribunes of the people and give the populace more influence in politics. The young politician Gaius Julius Caesar had become very popular among the people because he was very generous to his clients, openly expressed his sympathies for former populares, and had even had to flee from Sulla's revenge due to his political statements. After the dictator's death, Caesar became one of the most powerful politicians in Rome and was part of a triumvirate with Pompeius and Crassus during the 60s and 50s BC. As a result, he was elected consul and proconsul of cis-Alpine Gaul, where he achieved great victories.

In Gaul, Caesar went to war with Gallic tribes to protect the borders of Rome. However, this border conflict escalated into a major conquest war, which brought Caesar much success and prestige. Caesar's legions were the best trained in the entire republic and were completely loyal to him. Many of his legionnaires came from families that had served under Marius. Due to these factors, there was great fear in the Senate that he would succeed Sulla as a demagogue. In 56 BC, Crassus fell in his war against the Parthians in Syria, and the triumvirate came to an end.

In Caesar's absence, Rome had become a political powder keg, and violence regularly broke out in the streets. Pompeius was given special powers to manage the grain supply and control the street terror in the city; meanwhile, he shifted to the optimates in an attempt to seize power himself. Due to Caesar's success, Pompeius and the optimates decided at the end of 50 BC to bring down the popular general; they declared him a traitor to the republic and demanded he disband his army. Caesar put everything on the line and caused a constitutional crisis when he left his province of Gaul the following year and crossed the stream the Rubicon (the Roman border between Gaul and Italy) into Rome. The die was cast, and Rome fell into yet another series of civil wars after a brief period of peace.

Although the senate had turned against him, Caesar managed to conquer all of Italy in 49 BC with little resistance. Despite a few minor sieges, which ended in surrender, Caesar’ss march through the peninsula went smoothly. Caesar's legions were welcomed with open arms by the population and made no attempt to plunder the conquered territories. As a result, they were seen as 'liberators' and many supporters of Pompey and the optimates began to defect. However, Caesar's mercy was not without limits - In 48 BC, he razed Massalia (now the French city of Marseille) to the ground because it had turned against him.

Meanwhile, Pompey himself had fled: first to Southern Italy, then to the Balkans. Caesar pursued him and dared to cross in 48 BC. Near the city of Dyrrhachium, Pompey nearly defeated him, but Caesar just managed to escape. His loyal legions regrouped and destroyed Pompey's army at the Greek city of Pharsalus. Pompey fled to Egypt, where he was murdered by the Ptolemaic king Ptolemy XIII.

However, Caesar was not yet finished in the East. In the following year, he took advantage of the throne struggle in Egypt to depose the aforementioned Ptolemy with the help of the Jewish king Antipater and restore his sister Cleopatra to the throne as the ruler of a Roman vassal state. After this was accomplished, he conquered the kingdom of Pontus in Asia Minor with the help of his new allies. Caesar returned to Rome that same year, was appointed dictator, and during the course of 46 and 45 BC, he put an end to the remnants of the Pompeian armies that had fled to North Africa and Iberia. With these final campaigns, the optimates were definitively defeated, and the populares under Caesar had won the civil war.

Caesar was received in Rome in 45 BC as a hero by the people. Despite his harsh military actions, he was very forgiving towards his opponents: many of them were allowed to retain their positions as senators. However, this clemency would also be his downfall, as he began to act more like a king. In 44 BC, Caesar had himself appointed as dictator for life, but his reign did not last long. On the Ides of March of that same year, he was murdered on the Senate floor by a conspiracy of senators, including the young Marcus Junius Brutus whom he had raised as his son. Thus, his reign came to a bloody end, and Rome was plunged into a new series of civil wars, which brought the Republican period to an end.

Julius Caesar remains a highly controversial historical figure. For more than 2000 years, there has been much debate about how we should regard him; was he more of a terrible despot who destroyed the republic because he sought his own power, or a hero of the people who overthrew a corrupt system? Today, historians reject such simplistic moral judgments of historical figures from so far back in our past: understanding Roman society in this way is of little use.

Discussing the motivation and mindset of people like Caesar, on the other hand, can help us understand more about the society they were part of. Caesar was in favor of reforming the Roman state because he believed that the old corrupt republic was untenable as it placed all power and wealth in the hands of the aristocracy. He did not do this primarily out of genuine concern for the Roman people, but for the survival of the Roman state itself. He cleverly became popular with the plebeians and proletarians by promising them what they needed, but he did this simply by promising them what they needed. The Roman Republic was steeped in corruption and incompetence among the aristocrats. The rise of figures like Sulla, Caesar, and Augustus, who saw this corrupt system as fertile ground to seize power and exert their will (in favor of the people or the aristocracy), had become almost inevitable due to an accumulation of political factors over the past centuries.

The armor of the legionary was provided by the Roman government in the late republic. They produced armor, weapons, and clothing in special fabricae, workshops throughout the entire empire. Weaponry was produced and reused on a large scale: this ensured the equipment of the legions was consistent. The difference between the hastati, principes, and triarii had disappeared in this period. Instead, the army was composed of Legionaries, auxiliary cavalry, and auxiliary archers. The advantage of this was that the focus was on a consistent type of infantry with consistent armament, training, and organization.

The equipment of a legionary was intended to be as practical and functional as possible. A legionary had to be able to not only fight in his full gear but also march long distances in a day or stand guard for extended periods. 

Roman legionaries like Titus had similar clothing and equipment but were not uniform. Although they were assigned their gear by the Roman state, much was also shared or inherited from previous generations. For instance, Titus received his chainmail shirt, spear, shield, belt, and sandals from the state, but he wears the old helmet and gladius of his uncle, an old veteran who fought under Marius in the Social War and the defense of Rome against Sulla. Titus' tunic and cloak were made for him by his mother and sent to him from Rome. 

In Roman society, the woolen (or linen) Tunic was the main garment for both men and women. During the republican period, it was very fashionable to make these long and flowing, to give the same appearance as the more formal toga worn by Roman citizens. However, this was not practical for legionaries, and therefore they wore a short tunic.

The tunic that Titus wears is made of wool and is red dyed. In modern depictions, Legionaries often wear red, as this colour symbolized the war god Mars. However, it is unclear whether legionaries wore colored tunics at all, as the state produced their equipment as cheaply as possible. Also, the colour was not uniform per legion (or even per cohort). Soldiers often wore tunics from other batches or received clothing sent from home: thus, Titus' tunic was made for him by his mother.

The head hole of the tunic is quite wide: that is why Titus, like other legionnaires, wears a scarf to ensure that his collarbones and shoulders are protected from potential blisters or skin irritation from the lorica hamata.

The belt that Titus wears is not only intended to attach his gladius, but also as a symbol of his warrior status. Only Roman soldiers were allowed to wear these, both on and off duty. These belts have been found in many different designs and were often richly decorated by soldiers, as they had little else to spend their pay on during their stationing. Often this was done with a series of plates (lamna) and from the first century AD, a type of apron of decorated pendants (baltea): these were made of brass or tin. There are also many depictions from the first century BC of cingula in a 'cowboy' construction, where two belts were worn crossed over each other. This was probably reserved for the wealthiest legionnaires, who could afford two decorated belts.

The sandals that Titus wears are a practical military model worn by legionnaires. Military sandals were comfortable and lightweight in design: this allowed soldiers to perform hard work, stand on guard for long periods, and march long distances per day without developing blisters. The sandals were equipped by soldiers themselves with nails to provide grip on unpaved or natural ground. They could also be used to finish off fallen enemies on the battlefield as Roman units marched over them.

Sandals wore out the fastest of any part of the military equipment: often a soldier needed a new pair every year. As a result, a huge number were produced annually in the military fabricae. This also meant that unlike the rest of the equipment, a legionnaire could not pass them down from generation to generation.

Titus carries a cloak for cold or bad weather. The Roman cloak was a large piece of wool, held together with a fibula. Roman soldiers wore cloaks to keep themselves warm and dry: the latter was very important to protect the equipment from rust or dirt. They may also have played a role in night operations, to camouflage legionnaires. The cloak could even be used to protect the arm during a fight: there is a report of legionnaires who were ambushed by the enemy without shield and wrapped their cloaks around their forearm to use as shield.

From murals, it can be deduced that Roman legionaries often wore brown, beige, and gray cloaks. This was because the cloaks were made from undyed wool, allowing the natural oil from the sheep to keep the cloak water-resistant. Centurions and other field commanders wore red, white, or even purple cloaks to stand out: Julius Caesar was known for wearing his cloak even during battles for dramatic effect. The cloak also became an increasingly important part of the equipment of legionaries as their empire expanded further north. 

To protect his body, Titus uses the large republican scutum (shield) and wears a Montefortino helmet and a lorica hamata (chainmail shirt). To fight, he uses a pilum (a heavy javelin) and the old gladius of his uncle.

Titus wears an iron helmet that he brought back from Gaul as war booty. The helmet is made of steel and has, in addition to two cheek plates, a large plate that protects his neck. This makes it better than Titus’ old helmet. Titus is not the only one who brought back a Celtic helmet of this type from Gaul, and like other legionaries, he has written his name in his helmet so he knows which one is his.

During the Gallic wars, Titus wore the old Montefortino helmet of his uncle. This type of helmet was worn by almost all legionaries of the late Roman Republic, just like their predecessors (the hastatus, principes, and triarius). This type of helmet was adopted in the 4th century BC from the Celts after the Celtic sack of Rome and was the longest-used of all Roman helmets. The helmet was equipped with cheek plates and often had a removable plume of horse hair, which made the wearer appear taller to intimidate the enemy.

The Celtic helmet worn by Titus would inspire the Romans in the course of the first century to produce a new helmet variant: the Coolus helmet, named after archaeological finds at Coole in France. This type of helmet, like Titus's Celtic helmet, had an extra plate that protected the wearer's neck and back. The earliest models (type A and B) were of simple construction, but over time the neck plate would become larger and wider. This design had a significant influence on the iconic silhouette of Roman 'imperial' helmets in the following centuries, with which most people are familiar.

The Lorica hamata was a Roman chainmail shirt worn by Roman soldiers from the third century BC to the fourth century AD. Often, sleeves were omitted to make it more comfortable to wear for long periods, especially during marches. Mail armor was possibly directly adopted from the Celts, as the La Tène culture had invented this form of armor around 400 BC. In the 4th-2nd century BC, the lorica hamata was very expensive and only the wealthiest could afford a lorica hamata: as a result, it was almost exclusively worn by the Triarii and Equites.

It seems that from around 120 BC, the Lorica hamata had become a standard part of the legionary equipment. During the late Republic and the Empire, the lorica hamata, like other parts of the armament, was provided by the state. Titus received his chainmail shirt on loan from the state, as his uncle had to sell his own lorica hamata to support his family. Until Titus has paid off the price of the chest armor, it is deducted from his pay.

Legionaries in the late republic had a pilum or two pila as part of their equipment. This was a heavy javelin, which was thrown at the enemy before the legionaries executed a charge. The weapon could also be used as a regular spear.

From the 4th century BC, the Romans used a scutum, probably adopted from the Celts just like the Montefortino helmet and the Lorica Hamata. This elongated shield was approximately 130 cm long in the late republic and had an oval shape. At the front, it had a wooden rib along the length of the shield with a shield boss on it: this allowed the scutum to also be used as a thrusting weapon. 

During the late republic, the Gladius Hispaniensis (Spanish sword) was used, which had been adopted from Iberian tribes during the Punic wars. The Roman variant had a leaf-shaped blade and was comparable in length to its predecessor, the La Tène type B sword. It was the main weapon of the Republican legionary after throwing the pilum. Titus uses the old gladius of his uncle, with a pommel in the shape of a clover.

The other soldiers in the thirteenth legion use similar gladii. In this period, the Gladius was still attached to the belt, but in the time of the principate, it would hang on a bandolier over the shoulder.