Get the look: Republican legionary, Gallic Wars

This blog follows the Roman legionary Titus in the year 54 BC from the thirteenth legion. He fights against the Gauls under his commander and proconsul, Gaius Julius Caesar.

Since the expulsion of the kings in 509 BC until the announcement of the principate in 27 BC, Rome was a republic. During this period, it was a bureaucratic state governed by two consuls, heads of state elected by the senate. The idea of the republic formed the foundation of Roman identity; the Romans never called themselves an empire until the fall of the western empire. Although we can see much of our current politics reflected in the Roman Republic. The society was highly hierarchical and shaped by patron-client relationships, even within the privileged citizenry. Noble senatorial families were at the top, followed by equites (knights) and plebeians. Below them existed a lower class of proletarians and slaves who had no say.

Throughout the history of the late Roman Republic, the legions played an important political role. Due to the professionalization of the army, campaigns lasted longer and legionaries became dependent on their pay and war booty for their livelihood, which they received from their general. As a result, they became loyal to individual military leaders with military prowess (especially to governors, who had long terms of office) and not so much to the Roman senate. 

In the late republic, there was a series of political conflicts between (simply put) two different political groups, the populares who were in favor of land reform and more political participation of the plebs and proletariat, or the aristocratic optimates  those who were against it. The civil wars came to an end with the reign of terror of the optimates-general Sulla between 82-80 BC. Through his military power, he was able to appoint himself as dictator, and for two years he would massacre his political opponents en masse with his bloody proscriptions and seize their possessions for himself and his allies. He also brought about significant political reforms that (with and without violence) greatly curtailed the power of the people's tribunes. As a result, the balance of power in the government lay almost entirely with the aristocracy.

This led to a great fear after his death that a legion under another demagogue like Sulla could pose a threat to Rome. In the coming years, this was recognized by the senate, and Roman governors were not allowed to leave their provinces with their legions. It was also strictly forbidden for Roman military commanders to enter Italy with a mobilized force: for triumphal processions within the city, the army had to be officially disbanded first. 

The conflict between the optimates and populares was completely halted by Sulla's bloody regime. However, sympathies persisted, and in 70 BC, Gnaeus Pompeius and Marcus Licinius Crassus, the two most powerful generals of the republic, became consuls together to reverse Sulla's strong restrictions against the tribunes of the people and give the people more influence in politics. Although they were populares, it should not be thought that they were radical reformers fighting for the lowest classes in society. For instance, Pompeius had served under Sulla, and Crassus, besides being the largest landlord of Rome (through his famous fire brigades), was the commander of the army that had brutally suppressed Spartacus's slave revolt.

Meanwhile, a young politician was rising in Rome: Gaius Julius Caesar, who had cleverly and boldly climbed the political ladder. He had become very popular among the people because he was very generous to his clients, openly expressed his sympathies for former populares, and had even had to flee from Sulla's wrath due to his political statements. After the dictator's death, Caesar returned and pursued his former oppressors and accomplices; an action that further elevated his reputation in the eyes of the Roman people.

To maintain power among the three great figures and prevent a civil war, the 'first' triumvirate between Pompeius, Crassus, and Caesar was established (this name was later given to this informal trio, after the 'real' triumvirate of Octavianus, Marcus Antonius, and Lepidus). Together with the famous orator Marcus Tullius Cicero, the three power holders thwarted a conspiracy to bring a new dictator to power. They also ensured that all three could obtain the important government positions they desired. Thus, Caesar was elected as consul and proconsul of trans-Alpine Gaul, where he achieved great victories.

When Caesar was appointed as governor of Gaul, he went to war with Gallic tribes to protect Rome's borders. However, this border conflict escalated into a major conquest war. Through Caesar's cunning strategies and loyal legions, the Romans managed to subjugate all of Gaul up to the Rhine and the Channel between 58 and 50 BC. The Gallic king Vercingetorix attempted to unite the various tribes against Caesar, but this was in vain.

Caesar's legions were the best trained in the entire republic and were fully loyal to him. Many of his legionaries came from families that had served under Marius. He also became even more popular among the Roman populace due to his victories: this led to great fear in the Senate that he would succeed Sulla as a demagogue. In 56 BC, Crassus fell in his war against the Parthians in Syria, and the triumvirate came to an end. 

Meanwhile, there was much unrest in Rome: the people's tribune Publius Clodius had enacted a grain law, causing the poor to flock to Rome in large numbers. The city had become a political powder keg in recent periods, and violence regularly broke out in the streets. Pompey was given special powers to regulate this grain supply and control the street terror in Rome: meanwhile, he defected to the optimates in an attempt to seize power himself. 

Due to Caesar's success, Pompey and the optimates decided at the end of 50 B.C. to jointly overthrow the popular general; they declared him a traitor to the republic and demanded that he disband his army. Caesar went all out and caused a constitutional crisis when he left his province of Gaul in the following year and crossed the stream the Rubicon (the Roman boundary between Gaul and Italy) towards Rome. This crisis and the subsequent civil wars brought a thundering end to the Republican period and led to the establishment of an empire under Augustus in 27 B.C. However, the Romans would continue to call their empire a republic until the fall of the Eastern Roman senate in 602.

The armor of the legionary was provided by the Roman government in the late republic. They produced armor, weapons, and clothing in special fabricae, workshops throughout the entire empire. Weaponry was mass-produced and reused: as a result, the equipment of the legions was consistent. The distinction between the hastati, principes, and triarii had disappeared in this period. Instead, the army was composed of Legionaries, auxiliary cavalry, and auxiliary archers. The advantage of this was that the focus was on a consistent type of infantry with consistent armament, training, and organization

The equipment of a legionary was intended to be as practical and functional as possible. A legionary had to be able to not only fight in full gear but also march long distances in a day or stand guard for long periods. 

Roman legionaries like Titus had similar clothing and equipment, but were not uniform. Although they were assigned their equipment by the Roman state, much was also shared or inherited from previous generations. For instance, Titus received his chainmail shirt, spear, shield, belt, and sandals from the state, but he wears the old helmet and gladius of his uncle, an old veteran who fought under Marius in the Social War and the defense of Rome against Sulla. Titus’s tunic and cloak were made for him by his mother and sent to him from Rome. 

In Roman society, the woolen (or linen) Tunic was the primary garment for both men and women. During the Republican period, it was very fashionable to make these long and flowing, to give the same appearance as the more formal toga worn by Roman citizens. However, this was not practical for legionaries, and therefore they wore a short tunic.

The tunic Titus wears is made of wool and is red dyed. In modern images, legionaries often wear red, because this colour symbolized the war god Mars. However, it is unclear whether legionaries wore colored tunics at all, as the state produced their equipment as cheaply as possible. Also, the colour was not uniform per legion (or even per cohort). Soldiers often wore tunics from other batches or received clothing sent from home: for example, Titus' tunic was made for him by his mother.

The neck opening of the tunic is quite wide: therefore, like other legionaries, Titus wears a scarf to ensure that his collarbones and shoulders are protected against possible blisters or skin irritation from the lorica hamata.

The belt that Titus wears is not only intended to attach his gladius, but also as a symbol of his warrior status. Only Roman soldiers were allowed to wear these, both in and out of service. These belts have been found in many different designs and were often richly decorated by soldiers, as they had little else to spend their pay on during their stationing. This was often done with a series of plates (lamna) and from the first century AD, a type of apron with decorated pendants (baltea): these were made of brass or tin. There are also many depictions from the first century BC of cingula in a 'cowboy' construction, where two belts were worn crossed over each other. 

The sandals that Titus wears are a practical military model worn by legionaries. Military sandals were comfortable and lightweight in design: this allowed soldiers to perform hard work, stand on guard for long periods, and march long distances per day without developing blisters. The sandals were fitted by the soldiers themselves with nails to provide grip on unpaved or natural ground. They could also be used to finish off fallen enemies on the battlefield as Roman units marched over them.

Sandals wore out the fastest of any component of the military equipment: often a soldier needed a new pair each year. As a result, a huge number was produced annually in the military fabricae. This also meant that unlike the rest of the equipment, a legionary's sandals could not be passed down from generation to generation.

Titus carries a cloak for cold or bad weather. The Roman cloak was a large piece of wool, held with a fibula. Roman soldiers wore cloaks to keep themselves warm and dry: the latter was very important to protect the equipment from rust or dirt. They may also have played a role in night operations, to camouflage legionaries. The cloak could even be used to protect the arm during a fight: there is an account of legionaries who were ambushed by the enemy without shield and wrapped their cloaks around the forearm to use as shield.

From murals, it can be deduced that Roman legionnaires often wore brown, beige, and gray cloaks. This was because the cloaks were made of undyed wool, so the natural oil of the sheep could keep the cloak water-resistant. Centurions and other field commanders wore red, white, or even purple cloaks to stand out: Julius Caesar was known for wearing his cloak during battles for dramatic effect. The cloak also became an increasingly important part of the legionnaires' equipment as their empire expanded further north.

To protect his body, Titus uses the large republican scutum (shield) and wears a Montefortino helmet and a lorica hamata (chainmail shirt). To fight, he uses a pilum (a heavy javelin) and the old gladius of his uncle.

Titus wears the old, cheaply produced Montefortino helmet of his uncle. This type of helmet was worn by almost all legionaries of the late Roman Republic, just like their predecessors (the hastatus, principes, and triarius). This type of helmet was adopted from the Celts in the 4th century BC after the Celtic sack of Rome and was the longest-used of all Roman helmets. The helmet was equipped with cheek plates and often had a removable plume of horse hair, which made the wearer appear taller to intimidate the enemy. Like other legionaries, Titus has written his name in his helmet, so he knows which one is his.

Some soldiers in the thirteenth legion wear a different helmet. The Montefortino helmet was gradually replaced by another (Celtic-inspired) variant in the 1st century BC: the Coolus helmet, named after archaeological finds near Coole in France. This type of helmet, like the Montefortino helmet, was based on Celtic models, but also had an additional plate that protected the wearer's neck and back. The earliest models (type A and B) were of simple construction, but over time the neck plate would become larger and wider. This design had a significant influence on the iconic silhouette of Roman ‘imperial’ helmets in the following centuries, which most people are familiar with.

The Lorica hamata was a Roman chainmail shirt worn by Roman soldiers from the third century BC to the fourth century AD. Often, sleeves were omitted to make it more comfortable for long periods of wear, especially during marches. Mail may have been directly adopted from the Celts, as the La-Tène culture invented this form of armor around 400 BC. In the 4th-2nd century BC, the lorica hamata was very expensive and only the wealthiest could afford a lorica hamata: as a result, it was almost exclusively worn by the Triarii and Equites. 

It seems that from around 120 BC, the Lorica hamata had become a standard part of the legionary equipment. During the late Republic and the Imperial period, the lorica hamata, like other parts of the equipment, was provided by the state. Titus received his chainmail shirt on loan from the state, as his uncle had to sell his own lorica hamata to support his family. Until Titus has paid off the price of the chest armor, it is deducted from his salary.

Legionaries in the late republic had a pilum or two pila as part of their equipment. This was a heavy javelin, which was thrown at the enemy before the legionaries executed a charge. The weapon could also be used as a regular spear. 

From the 4th century BC, Roman legionaries used the scutum, probably adopted from the Celts just like the Montefortino helmet and the Lorica Hamata. This elongated shield was about 130 cm long in the late republic and had an oval shape. At the front, it had a wooden rib along the length of the shield with a shield boss on it: this allowed the scutum to be used as a thrusting weapon as well. 

During the late republic, the Gladius Hispaniensis (Spanish sword) was used, which was adopted from Iberian tribes during the Punic wars. The Roman variant had a leaf-shaped blade and was in terms of length comparable to its predecessor, the La Tène type B sword. It was the main weapon of the Republican legionary after throwing the pilum. Titus uses the old gladius of his uncle.

The other legionaries in the thirteenth legion use similar gladii. In this period, the Gladius was still attached to the belt, but in the time of the principate, it would be hung on a bandolier over the shoulder.