The xiphos was a double-edged, one-handed, and straight short sword used by the ancient Greeks. It may have developed from swords of the late Mycenaean period, which had a thin, double-edged blade of about 80 cm long; however, this theory remains the subject of scholarly debate. Most xiphos had a leaf-shaped blade with a sharp tip, but in the Hellenistic period, this shape was sometimes less pronounced. The hilt was made from bronze, wood, ebony, or bone, while the scabbard was of wood with copper fittings.
The xiphos is a product of the Iron Age. With the introduction of iron between the ninth and sixth centuries BC, the blades of swords became wider and shorter. While the Etruscans continued to make longer bronze weapons, the Greeks switched to iron xiphoi with a blade length of 45-60 centimeters. The Spartans preferred shorter variants of about 30 cm, especially during the Greco-Persian Wars. Such a xiphos weighed between 450 and 900 grams and was usually worn on a baldric under the left arm.
Comparison with Other Swords
The xiphos was suitable for both cutting and thrusting, a design that dates back to the Bronze Age. The Mycenaean Naue II-sword, which originally had a bronze blade, likely served as the basic for the xiphos when it transitioned to an iron version. Similar short swords appeared throughout Europe in the late Bronze Age. An example of this is the Celtic La Tène short sword, which was almost identical to the xiphos.
A common misconception is that bronze xiphoi existed. In reality, all discovered specimens (such as those from Olympia, Macedonia, and Southern Italy) are made of iron. The myth of the bronze xiphos likely arose from the misidentification of bronze swords or ornaments from the Bronze Age, before the xiphos as we know it was developed.
Use in Warfare
The xiphos served as a secondary weapon for the hoplites and was only used when their doru(spear) broke or when close combat occurred. Although hoplites generally fought in tightly packed formations, there were moments when their sword became necessary. From the 6th century BC, the kopis, a single-edged sword, became increasingly popular. As a result, the xiphos was gradually displaced as the standard weapon of hoplites.
Although Xenophon states that the xiphos was the conventional sword used by the Greek soldier of his time, he recommended the makhaira for the cavalry:
"I recommend a kopis instead of a xiphos, for from the height of a horse, the slash of a makhaira will serve you better than the thrust of a xiphos."
Archaeological Finds and Construction
Most xiphoi had a hilt with a two-part construction, similar to a knife. The side pieces, made from wood, bone or ebony, were attached to the tang with pins and then smoothed, giving the handle its characteristic oval shape.
The guard usually had a "bridge shape" and was made of organic material or iron. Some specimens, particularly those found in Italy and Macedonia, had an iron reinforcement along the hilt.
Ceremonial xiphoi have also been discovered, with handles adorned with gold leaf. These swords were found exclusively in burial contexts and likely served as status symbols. Despite the rarity of surviving specimens, xiphoi are sometimes found in graves alongside other iron weapons, indicating the high status of their owners.
Distribution in the Mediterranean World
The xiphos was used by both Greek and Etruscan hoplites, but was less common among Macedonian phalanxes, who preferred the kopis. Over time, the sword spread among various 'barbarian' tribes on the Apennine Peninsula. Here, the xiphos remained in use until the 3rd century AD
The xiphos in the Roman Armies
Until the 3rd century BC, the Roman armies use of the xiphos. However, after the Gallic sack of Rome in 390 BC, there was an increasing preference for the Celtic 'La Tène' swords with a longer blade, which were better suited for warfare outside the closed formation of the phalanx. The Gallic sack of Rome and the Wars against the Sarmatians (343-341 BC) taught the Romans that the closed phalanx formation was insufficient against an enemy that utilized mobility on the battlefield. As a result, the Romans began to apply a new tactic; instead of simply being the first and second phalanx-shaped line, the hastati and principes were henceforth armed with one or two javelins that could also be used for thrusting. The sword, which was initially just a backup-weapon, thus became much more important in Roman warfare.
Linguistic and Historical Background
The word xiphos was already written in Mycenaean Greek (Linear B) as qi-si-pe-e. Possible linguistic connections include:
- The Arabic "saifun" (sword)
- The Egyptian "sēfet"
- The Ossetian "äxsirf" (sickle), indicating a possible Proto-Indo-European origin (kwsibhro-)
According to Stone’s Glossary, the famous poet Homer used the word "xiphos" as a general term for a sword. In his description from the eighth century BC, the widest point of the blade was located at two-thirds of the length, ending in a sharp tip.
