Pagan symbolism: Viking wolves

Everywhere in  Germanic and Viking art, wolves are depicted. Sometimes as animals and sometimes interwoven or hidden in complex knot motifs. In this blog, we delve deeper into the symbolism behind this mythical creature.

Wolves played a prominent role in Germanic and Old Norse mythology, representing both heroes and threats. Fenrir, the malevolent wolf of Ragnarök, is the most famous, but Geri and Freki, Odin's loyal wolves, are also significant figures. The presence of both the destructive Fenrir and the loyal Geri and Freki underscores the duality of the wolf in these cultures.

This symbolism finds its origins in Proto-Indo-European traditions. Wolves embodied both chaos and destruction as loyalty and strength. It is this ambiguity that made the wolf a symbol of loyalty, martial prowess, and tactical intelligence that can be seen throughout Indo-European culture.

Around 3000 BC, the Proto-Indo-Europeans migrated from the Pontic-Caspian steppe into Europe. They laid the basic for cultures such as the Vikings, Romans, Greeks, and Celts. Many of their cultural expressions are still visible in Germanic and Scandinavian culture.

For speakers of Proto-Indo-European, wolves were both feared enemies and admired creatures. These predators threatened not only livestock but also the survival of families. Wolf attacks could ruin entire communities and cause famine. With their cunning intelligence and impressive strength, wolves posed a constant threat to daily life.

In contrast, dogs - domesticated descendants of the wolf - were loyal companions and protectors of the family long before humans kept chickens or rode horses. 

Fenrir, the gigantic wolf from Norse mythology, embodies the cunning and destructive force of chaos. As the son of Loki and Angrboða and the brother of Jörmungandr and Hel, Fenrir plays a key role in Ragnarök, the end of the world.

According to the Poetic Edda and the Prose Edda, Fenrir grows into a threat that the gods cannot ignore. They bind him with the magical ribbon Gleipnir, but not without sacrifices: Týr loses his hand in the process. However, the gods avoid Fenrir's death to prevent bloodshed on sacred ground, an ancient Indo-European custom.

Fenrir's rebellion against Odin is sometimes explained by parallels with the behavior of real wolves. Ethologist Valerius Geist suggests that Fenrir's struggle for dominance might be inspired by observations of wolves that sometimes challenge and kill their leaders.

Fenrir's myth is illustrated in archaeological finds such as the Ledberg-stone and the Gosforth Cross, where pagan and Christian symbolism converge. In Christian interpretations, Fenrir symbolizes evil, while Odin represents good.

During Ragnarök, Fenrir kills Odin, but he is himself overcome by Odin's son Víðarr. This confrontation highlights the eternal struggle between order and chaos. 

Although Fenrir is often depicted as pure evil in Christian interpretations, the dharmic Indo-European traditions did not see chaos solely as destructive but also as necessary for creating renewal. Fenrir can thus be understood as an embodiment of inevitable fate: a force needed to destroy the old and make way for the new. Without chaos, there can be no order.

In Norse mythology, Geri and Freki, two wolves who accompany Odin, symbolize the loyal bond between man and wolf (dog). They are mentioned in the Poetic Edda, the Prose Edda, and in skaldic poetry. Geri and Freki were possibly the symbolic personifications of the Germanic Úlfhéðnar, warriors who fought in a wolf-like trance as followers of Wodan/Odin. 

The names Geri and Freki both mean 'greedy' or 'gluttonous' and have roots in Proto-Germanic. Geri can be traced back to the Proto-Indo-European root *gher-, which also appears in the name of Garmr, the dog associated with Ragnarök. Freki shares similar roots with words from Gothic, Old Norse, and Old High German, all pointing to gluttony.

In the Poetic Edda, Odin feeds Geri and Freki all the food from his table, while he himself consumes only wine. This is confirmed in the Prose Edda, with the explanation that Odin, as a god, needs only spiritual nourishment. In the poem Grímnismáll, they are described as loyal companions who devour the corpses of the fallen in battle. 

Archaeological images, such as on the Böksta runestone , show Odin together with the wolves during a hunt for a moose.

The 19th-century scholar Jacob Grimm noted that Geri and Freki show similarities with the sacred wolves of Apollo and with other Indo-European wolf stories. Philologist Maurice Bloomfield associates them with Vedic mythology, in which the god Yama has two dogs that accompany the dead.

Geri and Freki reflect a broader Indo-European tradition where wolves accompany gods, similar to the Greek Apollo, the Vedic Yama, and the Roman Romulus & Remus. They embody the power of these animals, while the mythological wolf Fenrir and the Persian wolf Ahriman symbolize the danger of these animals. 

Scholars like Michael Spiedel associate Geri and Freki with archaeological findings of Germanic warriors with wolf skins. These warriors, known as Ulfheðnar, were said to worship Odin and follow him as a mythical pack leader. This phenomenon is seen as a pan-Germanic cult that disappeared after the Christianization of Northern Europe.

The name Ulfheðinn (singular) can be translated as 'wolf cloak' or 'wolf skin'. The tradition goes back a long way: in Rome, the shields and standards of Germanic wolf warriors were captured by the Romans and displayed during the Armilustrium in Rome.

These elite warriors, comparable to berserkers, appeared in various sagas such as the Vatnsdæla saga, Haraldskvæði, and the Grettis saga. They are described as the personal guard of Harald Fairhair, the first king of Norway.

Unlike the more well-known berserkers, there is less direct reference to Ulfheðnar, although their status and skills are often described as exceptional. The ritual of the Ulfheðnar finds its origin in the Proto-Indo-European Koryos.

Ulfheðnar wore wolf skins and were known for their fierce, animalistic behavior in battle. They would enter an ecstatic, trance-like state in which they were impervious to fire and iron and fought with unprecedented strength. This state, known as berserkgang , connects them directly with Odin. They were considered the special warriors of the god, deriving their power from his protection and inspiration. In some sources, it is described how they bit their shields and behaved like mad dogs or wolves during battle. 

In the Egils Saga, Kveldulf (Evening Wolf) is mentioned, a man who transformed into a wolf 's at night. Although he is referred to as a berserker and not specifically as an ulfheðinn, this shows the close link between wolf mythology and warriors who enter a trance-like fury during fighting.

Another example is the depiction on a helmet plate from Torslunda and the helmets of Sutton Hoo and Valsgärde 7 & 8, where a warrior with a wolf's head is depicted next to a one-eyed, horned figure, presumably Odin. This image reinforces the association between berserkers, the Ulfheðnar, and the god Odin. 

The úlfheðnar had their origins in the Proto-Indo-European culture and the ritual of the koryos.

To protect livestock and demonstrate heroism, killing wolves became a symbolic act. Young men from the warrior class joined a war band, the koryos, in which they adopted the behavior, tactics, strength, and fury of the wolf. Armed with only a spear, they had to kill a wild dog or wolf. Afterward, they symbolically assumed the identity of a wolf and possibly even gave each other wolf names, emphasizing their transformation into warriors.

The koryos appeared in many other Indo-European cultures. Not only among the Germanic úlfheðnar, but also in the Vedic tradition (the vrātyas), among the Greeks (kryptai and possibly epheboi), Romans (luperci), possibly the Scythians and Celts (the fían). The Old Irish mythological hero Cú Chulainn (cú means dog) can be seen as a dog warrior. These warriors are often associated with rituals and mythological stories that emphasize transformation into animals as a source of strength and protection. Wolf warriors likely form the European inspiration for werewolves.

Outside the Indo-European world, the tradition of the wolf warrior can also be seen, such as among the Native Americans and the Mongols. This may suggest that the tradition is even much older than the Proto-Indo-European peoples. 

The Greek word lyssa means both ‘rage’, ‘fury’ and ‘rabies’. It stood for the fury with which wild dogs and wolves could attack.

In Greek mythology, this power is sometimes depicted as a goddess. Heracles invoked her as a source of strength. The hero Actaeon was devoured by his dogs in lyssa, after he had seen the goddess Artemis naked.

The power of lyssa could be invoked by wolf warriors and legendary heroes, such as the Irish Cú Chulainn. Without the ability to invoke Lyssa, wearing the wolf pelt was worthless. The Old Norse lyssa was wut, Indo-Iranian aesma,  Vedic varaarayna.

For the Proto-Indo-European peoples, the wolf had a dual meaning. On one hand, the animal was a dangerous enemy that threatened both humans and livestock, while on the other hand, the dog, a descendant of the wolf, was considered a loyal companion and protector of the family. Thus, the wolf was also revered for its cunning, strength, and fury. This ambivalent relationship between humans and wolves led to rituals and traditions in which the wolf was central.

The koryos ritual is an important expression of a wolf cult. Proto-Indo-European traditions evolved into the Germanic and Old Norse Ulfheðnar, warriors who worshipped Odin (Wodan) and were known as the “wolves of Odin.”

In Germanic and Old Norse art, wolves symbolized loyalty, strength, and protection, but also aggression and strategic insight. Objects with wolf symbolism were likely seen as carriers of these attributes and thus offered spiritual inspiration and protection for their owners.