Greek helmets from Antiquity

The history of Greek helmets dates back to the Mycenaean civilization in the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. From this period date the earliest helmet finds and their depictions on frescoess: this marks the beginning of the development of different types of Greek helmets. In this blog, we discuss various types of helmets used in ancient Greece and the Hellenistic world. 

Helmets made from boar's tusks were known in the Mycenaean world from the seventeenth to the tenth century BC. The helmet was made by attaching narrow strips of boar's tusk in rows to a leather cap, with a felt lining for extra comfort. The number of plates required to make a complete helmet varied, but archaeologists and historians estimate that 40 to 50 boars had to be killed to produce just one helmet.

A description of this type of helmet appears in book ten of Homer's Iliad, in which Odysseus is armed for a night raid on the Trojans:

"Meriones gave Odysseus a bow, a quiver, and a sword, and set a cleverly made leather helmet on his head. Inside was a solid lining of interwoven straps, on which a felt cap was sewn. The outside was skillfully adorned with rows of white boar's tusks, with the tusks in each row placed in alternating directions."

In antiquity, the Greeks used the word κυνέη (kunée) to refer to a helmet, which literally means "dog skin." In Homer's Iliad, the κυνέη is used to denote both a simple cap and a helmet without a visor, crest, or cheek pieces, regardless of whether it was made of leather or metal. In contrast, Homer used the word κόρυς (korus) for bronze helmets with cheek pieces and a horsehair crest.

Fragments of ivory, presumably from such helmets, have been discovered at Mycenaean archaeological sites. In Dendra, for example, ivory fragments were found next to a bronze armor. Additionally, a Mycenaean ivory plaque also depicts an image of such a helmet.

Although a boar's tusk helmet offered less protection than a metal helmet, it may have been worn as a status symbol or means of identification, especially by leaders. Homer mentions that the helmet of Odysseus was an heirloom passed down through generations, indicating the high value of such helmets. Helmets depicting boars have also been found from the Migration Period among Germanic peoples. The boar was also a common symbol on Roman shields and boar tusks have been found in the monumental burial mounds of the Yamnaya culture. Possibly, this type of Mycenaean helmets should be viewed in a broader Proto-Indo-European perspective, where the boar represented aggression. It was also one of the wild animals that young men had to defeat as part of a ritual to be admitted to the warrior class. Boars symbolized the achievement culture of these societies.

The Greek 'Dark Ages ' lasted from approximately 1100 BC to 800 BC. This period owes its name to the limited number of sources available. It is characterized by the collapse of the Mycenaean civilization, the loss of traditional script, and the overall decline in trade, art, and architecture.

The helmets of the heroes from the Trojan War, which were not made by the Greeks themselves, differed significantly from the Greek helmets depicted on vases six centuries later. These early helmets consisted of four plates.

Due to the primitive construction of composite helmets, only a few examples from antiquity have survived. The first fully metal helmets appeared in Greece around the 15th century BC. In the Archaeological Museum of Heraklion (Crete), there is a partially preserved bronze helmet with extended cheek pieces, a pointed dome, and an attachment point for a plume of horse hair.

Illyrian helmets were the first fully metal helmets produced in Greece after the Dark Ages. Bronze plates were bent to follow the shape of the head, placed overlapping, and fastened together with rivets. This resulted in elongated reinforcement ribs on the top of the helmet. Later, the Greeks learned to forge helmets from a single piece, traditionally retaining the elongated ribs. Helmets of this type have been primarily found in the region inhabited by Illyria in antiquity, which gave this helmet its name.

The Illyrian helmet originated in the 8th-7th century BC in the Peloponnese. Accurate depictions on Corinthian vases are sufficient to indicate that the Illyrian helmet was developed before 600 BC. A characteristic aspect of this helmet is the absence of a visor, the elongated ribs on the top, large triangular cheek pieces, and a rectangular face opening. Over time, a visor was added, which protected the neck with an extended rear piece, and the "ears" (cheek pieces) were curved around the face. These helmets with visors would be developed into the Corinthian helmet.

The Illyrian type helmet did not obstruct vision, although the first two variants did obstruct hearing. There were four types of these helmets, all of which had an open face:

• Type I (ca. 700–640 BC) left the neck unprotected and obstructed hearing.
• Type II (ca. 600 BC) provided neck protection, but again obstructed hearing.
• Type III (ca. 550 BC) provided neck protection and allowed better hearing.
• Type IV (ca. 500 BC) was similar to Type III, but hearing was not obstructed at all.

The Illyrian helmet was used by the ancient Greeks, Etruscans, Scythians and became popular with the Illyrians, who later adopted it. A variant of the helmet was also spread to Italy, as evidenced by their frequent appearance on ivory reliefs and a silver plate in the "Bernardini" tombs in Praeneste. The helmet became obsolete in most parts of Greece at the beginning of the 5th century BC. Its use in Illyria had ended by the 4th century BC. However, in Macedonia, which was technologically less developed at the time, they remained in use until the 4th century BC.

The Corinthian helmet was fully enclosed and sometimes adorned with a crest of horse hair. It offered maximum protection to the head, but the visor and closed face guard limited visibility. Outside of combat, the helmet could be pushed back onto the neck, revealing the face. On ancient Greek pottery from the 6th century BC, the Corinthian helmet is a prominent feature of the hoplite. The emergence of this helmet is linked to the development of the dense phalanx formation, where a good field of vision was less important.

From the 7th century BC, Illyrian helmets gradually fell out of use in Greece due to the rise of the Corinthian type. From the period 725-650 BC, approximately 30 early conical helmets have been found, an equal number of Illyrian helmets, and 17 Corinthian helmets. From finds of later periods (650-575 BC), the conical helmets disappeared, the number of Illyrian helmets decreased to 7, while the number of Corinthian helmets increased to 90.

Corinthian helmets appeared in the 7th century BC and reached their greatest popularity in the 5th century BC, during the Greco-Persian Wars. By the end of the 5th century BC, the Corinthian type was replaced by the more practical Chalcidian helmet. In the 6th century BC, the Corinthian helmet took on its most recognizable form. This helmet became one of the symbols of ancient Greece and an essential part of the hoplite equipment, as seen on frescoess and pottery. From the mid-5th century BC, Corinthian helmets underwent various modifications, particularly due to the development of craft centers in Attica, Macedonia, Southern Italy, and other regionss. 

Based on basic of artistic and archaeological evidence, the Corinthian helmet was the most popular helmet during the Archaic and early Classical periods. This style gradually gave way to the more open Thracian helmet, Chalcidian helmet, and the much simpler Pilos helmet, which was cheaper to produce and did not impair the wearer's senses (sight and hearing). Numerous examples of Corinthian helmets have been excavated, and they are often depicted on ancient Greek pottery.

Besides the phalanx and hoplite the peoples of Italy also adopted this type of Greek helmet. It became very popular, with many variants found in Italy. Outside of battles, Greek hoplites often wore the helmet raised to provide more comfort. This habit led to modifications in Italy, where the openings became increasingly smaller. As a result, the helmet was no longer pulled over the face but worn as a cap. Although the classic Corinthian helmet was gradually replaced by more open models among the Greeks, the Italo-Corinthian variant remained in use until the 1st century AD. This modified version was worn by the Roman army, among others. The 15th-century barbute can also be seen as a revival of the Corinthian helmet. 

Typically, the helmet had an opening at the mouth, but in the Greek poleis of Southern Italy (Apulia), solid helmets from the 6th to 5th century BC have been found. These helmets resemble an iron bowl with openings for the eyes and breathing in a distinctive T-shape, with the visor dividing the "T" pattern in two. This type of helmet is known as the Apulo-Corinthian helmet.

The Chalcidian helmet appeared in the 6th century BC and remained in use for three centuries until it was replaced in the 3rd century BC by simpler Pilos and Thracian helmets. Unlike the Corinthian helmet, the Chalcidian helmet cheek plates allowed the ears to remain more open. This was more comfortable for the wearer but offered less protection. The visor was symbolic or entirely absent, which improved visibility. The cheek pieces were wide and flat, with a rectangular or rounded shape and often a wavy front edge. They could be fastened with loops. Visually, the helmet consisted of two parts: a spherical top and a lower section, which were connected by the prominently raised edge.

Attic helmets were a variant of the Chalcidian helmet, produced by the craft school in Attica. The antiquarian Peter Connolly classifies the Attic helmet as a variant of the Chalcidian helmet, but without a visor.

Other differences with the Chalcidian helmet include the pointed crescent-shaped cheek pieces, which are usually secured with hinges. While the Chalcidian helmet was often decorated with a helmet crest and feathers, the Attic helmet featured an archaic Carian crest of horse hair.

The Attic helmet was highly valued by the Etruscans and has a history spanning over a thousand years. In Italy, the helmet was widely adopted, especially by the Etruscans and Oscans, who developed their own variants, such as the Etrusco-Attic and Osco-Attic helmets.

The Oscans, originating from Central Italy, frequently used the Attic helmet and adapted it to their own style. They played an important political and military role in Italy from the 5th century BC and became rivals of both the Romans and the Greeks. The Apulians and Messapians also developed their own versions of the helmet.

Although the Attic helmet was popular in Italy, it was less used by the Greeks in Magna Graecia and Sicily, and it was mainly present there due to the presence of Etruscan and Oscan mercenaries. Later, the use of the helmet spread via the Romans to other parts of the Mediterranean world.

The Boeotian helmet was a type of helmet used in ancient Greece and other Greek-influenced areas during the classical and Hellenistic periods, and also in ancient Rome. This helmet was based on the shape of a folded-down Boeotian version of the petasos, a type of Greek sun hat, often made of felt. It was an open helmet that provided good lateral visibility and did not impede hearing. The helmet had a domed surface with a wide brim that sloped downwards. The brim descended at the back to protect the neck and extended forward over the forehead. The sides of the brim were shaped in a complex pattern, with folds pointing downwards providing some protection to the face. Sometimes a long plume was attached to the helmet. Because it was important for cavalrymen to have good visibility and hearing, this type of helmet was particularly popular with the cavalry. It offered protection against downward strikes and projectiles and resembles the medieval kettle hat.

The helmet was forged from a single piece of bronze with a mold, and one of these molds is still visible, made of limestone. A well-preserved Boeotian helmet, which likely belonged to a cavalryman of Alexander the Great, was found in the Tigris River in Iraq and is now on display at the Ashmolean Museum. In the late Hellenistic period, the helmet evolved into a type with a higher, more conical top and often a smaller brim.

The Athenian military expert Xenophon specifically recommended the Boeotian helmet for the cavalry, saying: "This type not only offers the best protection for everything above the breastplate, but also ensures good visibility." Alexander the Great followed this advice and equipped his cavalry with this helmet. Both the Alexander Sarcophagus and the Alexander Mosaic depict cavalrymen of the ancient Macedonian army wearing this helmet. As a special cavalry helmet, however, the Boeotian helmet was not as widely used as other ancient helmets, such as the Corinthian or Phrygian helmets.

The helmet was later also used by the successors of Alexander the Great, probably throughout the Hellenistic world, but it is most often depicted on the coins of the Greco-Bactrian and Indo-Greek kingdoms, where the rulers often wore a variant of the helmet.

The helmet was also worn by the Roman cavalry during the Republican period. On the altar of Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus (a consul in 122 BC), a Roman cavalryman is depicted wearing the helmet with a later, more conical top and a falling horse hair plume.

The Phrygian helmet is a replica of the hat worn by Scythians, Thracians, and other peoples. The extended dome curves forward. Warriors of the Macedonian phalanx used these helmets. In Macedonia, bronze Phrygian hats transformed in the 2nd century BC into Thracian helmets, with an extended upward 'dome' that shaded the wearer's eyes and provided protection for the upper part of the face against downward strikes. The face was further protected by large cheek pieces, which were made separately from the helmet. Sometimes these cheek pieces were so large that they met in the middle, leaving an opening for the nose and eyes. When constructed in this way, they often had relief and engraved decorations that imitated a beard and mustache. Sometimes it was equipped with a crest for horse hair or feathers could be placed. 

The Phrygian helmet is also known as the Thracian helmet and became popular throughout the Hellenistic world well into the period of the Roman Republic. This helmet was widely used by Italic peoples, Etruscans, Thracians, Phrygians, and Dacians throughout the Hellenistic and Roman Republican periods, and by some ethnicities into the Roman Imperial period. The Phrygian helmet was worn by the Macedonian cavalry in the time of King Philip, but his son Alexander is said to have preferred the Boeotian helmet for his cavalry, as recommended by Xenophon. The royal grave in the Vergina tomb contained a helmet that was a variant of the Phrygian type, exceptionally made of iron, which would support its use by cavalry. The Phrygian helmet is prominently worn in depictions of the infantry of Alexander the Great's s army, as seen on the contemporary Alexander sarcophagus.