Introduction: Roman Kingdom Period

In this blog, we take you to the early history of Rome. We discover how a collection of small villages on the banks of the Tiber River grew into a kingdom. Additionally, we delve into the famous Roman foundation myth and examine what this myth tells us about the culture and identity of Rome.

The Roman foundation myth offers little historical context but provides valuable insight into the self-image of the Romans. This myth highlights important social norms of Rome. It also shows many similarities with the Proto-Indo-European creation story.

According to the Romans, their city was founded by an eponymous founder at a specific moment, although there were different opinions on when exactly this happened. The earliest dates place the foundation around 1100 BC, based on the belief that Romulus was the grandson of Aeneas of Troy. This brought the foundation of Rome close to the fall of Troy, which according to the Greek scholar Eratosthenes took place around 1184 BC. These dates were mentioned as early as 400 BC, but later Romulus was linked to Aeneas and the time of the Trojan War through a line of Alban kings. However, modern scholars consider these connections to be false. Attempts in antiquity to date the founding of the city were based on the duration of the Roman Republic, by counting the number of consuls and subtracting an estimated royal period from it.

By the time of the late Republic, the foundation of Rome was strongly linked to the Parilia: a traditional shepherd festival, celebrated annually on April 21. This festival was originally related to the purification of shepherds and sheep in the countryside around Rome, but it soon became associated with the foundation myth of Rome. In 121 AD, it was even transformed into the urban Romaea. The link with Romulus may have arisen through the so-called foster parents of the twins, Faustulus and Acca Larentia, who raised them as shepherds.

The Roman foundation myth offers little historical context but provides valuable insight into the self-image of the Romans. This myth highlights important social norms of Rome. It also shows many similarities with the Proto-Indo-European creation story.

According to the Romans, their city was founded by an eponymous founder at a specific moment, although there were differing opinions on when exactly this occurred. The earliest dates place the founding around 1100 BC, based on the belief that Romulus was the grandson of Aeneas of Troy. This brought the founding of Rome close to the fall of Troy, which according to the Greek scholar Eratosthenes took place around 1184 BC. These dates were mentioned as early as 400 BC, but later Romulus was linked to Aeneas and the time of the Trojan War through a line of Alban kings. However, modern scholars consider these connections to be false. Attempts in antiquity to date the founding of the city were based on the duration of the Roman Republic, by counting the number of consuls and subtracting an estimated royal period.

By the time of the late Republic, the founding of Rome was strongly associated with the Parilia: a traditional shepherd's festival, celebrated annually on April 21. This festival was originally related to the purification of shepherds and sheep in the countryside around Rome, but it soon became associated with the founding myth of Rome. In 121 AD, it was even transformed into the urban Romaea. The link with Romulus may have arisen through the so-called foster parents of the twins, Faustulus and Acca Larentia, who raised them as shepherds.

An important part of the founding of Rome is the story of the abduction of the Sabine women. After attempts to acquire women from neighboring settlements through diplomacy failed, Romulus used the religious celebration of the Consualia to abduct the women of the Sabines. According to the historian Livy, war ensued when the Sabines assembled an army to reclaim their women. During the Battle of the Lacus Curtius, the women forced the warring groups to make peace, after which the Sabine king Titus Tatius was installed as co-ruler with Romulus.

Some modern scholars have suggested that this abduction of women echoes ancient customs, in which Proto-Indo-European war bands (the Koryos) stole cattle and possibly women. Although the circumstances of this are speculative, DNA research indicates that the male steppe herders had children with Neolithic women. The Capitoline Wolf, probably dating from 600 BC, is seen as a Proto-Indo-European expression. This animal, which was both dangerous to herds and commanded respect among the warrior class, seems to have a symbolic connection with the culture of the Koryos.

By 300 BC, the story of Romulus and Remus was widely accepted by the Romans. It was depicted on some of Rome's first silver coins in 269 BC.

By the time of the Pyrrhic War (280–275 BC), there were as many as sixty different myths about the founding of Rome circulating, especially in the Greek world. Most stories attributed the founding of the city to an eponymous founder, often "Rhomos" or "Rhome" instead of Romulus. One myth tells that Romos, the son of Odysseus and Circe, would have founded the city of Rome.

The historian Martin P. Nilsson speculated that this older story became problematic as Rome became more powerful and tensions with the Greeks increased. The idea of descending from the Greeks became less attractive. Therefore, the Romans eventually embraced the myth of a Trojan origin. Nilsson suspects that the name "Romos" was adapted by some Romans to "Romulus," a name that better suited the Roman identity.

The genealogies in these stories varied greatly. In one version, Romus was a son of Zeus, who would have founded Rome. The writer Callias even proposed that Romulus descended from Latinus and a woman named Roma, who was the daughter of Aeneas. Other stories attributed to Romulus and Romus the roles of sons of Aeneas who founded not only Rome but also Capua.

By the 8th - 7th century BC, four major settlements emerged in the area that would later become Rome. These centers were located on the Palatine, the Capitoline, the Quirinal, and the Viminal, as well as on the Caelius, the Oppius, and the Velia hills. Although some ancient stories connect the Quirinal hill with the Sabines, no archaeological evidence has been found for this. Archaeological traces have been found on the Palatine hill dating back to 900 BC. The development of this area accelerated in the early to mid-8th century BC. This marks the beginning of a new phase in the history of Rome.

In this period, the area of the later Roman Forum changed. Here, burials ceased, and parts of the terrain were paved and arranged as a public space, causing the various villages to merge with the forum as the center.

Around 800 BC, votive offerings were found in the comitium (a central square for political gatherings), indicating a communal 'religious' cult. In Roman culture, as with other Proto-Indo-European peoples, no distinction was made between religion and political rule. The political and religious center is called the pomerium. Public buildings appeared, including the domus publica, the official residence of the pontifex maximus (the highest priest). It is estimated that this was built between 750 and 700 BC.

Religious activities also began at this time on the Capitoline hill, possibly connected to the ancient cult of Jupiter Feretrius. Furthermore, findings such as imported Greek pottery from Euboea and Corinth indicate Rome's contacts beyond Latium.

The pomerium, the sacred boundary of Rome, was a holy area where violence and weapons were prohibited. Only the most important gods were worshipped here. Non-citizens were not allowed to enter the pomerium, not even Queen Cleopatra during her visit to Rome. According to Indo-European traditions, one had to be washed and neatly dressed to enter the pomerium, as a sign of purity. Beauty symbolizes cosmic order, while filth represents chaos.

The origin of the pomerium dates back to the Etruscans and the Indo-European nomadic peoples, who demarcated a piece of land for rituals. According to myth, Romulus was the first to plow through the pomerium. This ritual likely has its origins with Neolithic farmers, who appropriated the land. The word "urban" comes from the Proto-Indo-European word for plow. The date of this demarcation, April 21, was later celebrated as the birthday of Rome and remained an important ritual in the founding of new cities.

The pomerium was not a walled area, but a legally and religiously defined area, marked by cippi (stone posts). It did not encompass the entire city area or the Seven Hills. Important buildings, such as the Curia Hostilia and the well of the Comitium in the Roman Forum, were within the pomerium, while the Temple of Bellona was located outside it.

Magistrates with imperium had limited power within the pomerium. They could strike a citizen but could not sentence them to death. Only a dictator was allowed to carry the axes in his fasces within the pomerium. It was also forbidden to bury the dead within the pomerium, although Julius Caesar was granted the right to a grave there in advance. However, his ashes were ultimately placed in his family tomb. The ashes of Emperor Trajan were, after his death in 117 AD, interred within the pomerium, near his column.

Generals and provincial promagistrates were not allowed to enter the pomerium, but there was an exception during a triumph ceremony. A general could enter the city for his triumph, but he had to wait with his soldiers outside the pomerium. Soldiers lost their military status upon entering the pomerium and had to wear civilian clothing during the triumphal procession.

The Theatre of Pompey, where Julius Caesar was assassinated, was located outside the pomerium. Senators who were not allowed to enter the pomerium could meet there. Weapons were also prohibited within the pomerium. The Praetorian Guard could only enter in civilian clothing, but it was possible to smuggle in weapons, such as daggers. The assassination of Julius Caesar took place outside the pomerium so that the conspirators could not be charged with sacrilege.

Around 800 BC, the first city wall was built on the Palatine. Remains of gates, streets, and huts near this wall suggest that Rome was a clearly defined settlement at that time. Moreover, these findings indicate a more advanced social and political organization. The use of the Forum as a communal space demonstrates that there was increasing centralization and cooperation among the different communities.

Like other Villanovan proto-urban centers, early Rome was likely organized around clans that managed their own territories. By the end of 800 BC, these groups appeared to have collaborated in a confederation. The development of city-states was presumably a Greek innovation that spread across the Mediterranean between 850 and 750 BC.

Early votive offerings on the Capitoline and Quirinal in 700 BC indicate a city with monumental architecture and public religious sanctuaries. Around 600 BC, the process of synoikismos (the merging of communities into a city) was completed. Rome was now a unity, with a central forum, monumental public buildings, and civic structures. This period marks the birth of the city as we know it.

According to the historian Livy, King Servius Tullius conducted a census of all the citizens of Rome. This census not only had an administrative function but also formed the basic for a reform of the army. Tullius used the results of the census to develop a military structure that was closely linked to the social division of society. At that time, military service was considered a civic duty and a way to acquire social status.

However, it should be noted that the social classes were not created by the census but rather qualified and refined. It is therefore more accurate to say that the army underwent a slight restructuring during this period, rather than a radical reform. Before the reforms, the infantry consisted of two groups: the classis, consisting of wealthy citizens, and the infra classem, the poorer citizens. The poorer group was excluded from the regular battle lines due to their inferior equipment.

During the reforms, this simple division was further specified. The army henceforth consisted of various types of troops, classified on the basic of the social class of citizens with property, collectively known as the adsidui. This classification ranged from the poorest citizens in the "fifth class" to the wealthiest in the "first class," with the equestrians (equestrians) above them. For all these groups, military service was mandatory.

At that time, however, military service was not seen as a burden, but as a noble duty to the state. This was in contrast to later periods in the Roman Empire, where military service was increasingly regarded as an unwelcome and heavy burden. For example, there are accounts of Romans in late antiquity who mutilated themselves to obtain exemption from military service. Such resistance to military service seems to have been absent in early Rome.

There are several explanations for this willingness to serve. It may be related to the fact that men fought to protect their own homes, or, as later Roman writers suggested, that the ancient Romans possessed a greater martial spirit. This may indicate the culture of individual achievement they inherited from their ancestors. The appropriation of war spoils may also have played an important role. 

The Roman army of the early republic was closely linked to the social structure of society. The wealthiest citizens formed the highest social class and served in the cavalry units, known as the equites. They were heavily armed and rode horses, which gave them an elite position within the army.

The second class served as heavy infantry. They were equipped with swords and long spears, similar to the Greek hoplites , and stood in the front line of the battle formation. These soldiers wore a breastplate and a round shield, providing them with good protection against attacks.

The second class had similar armament to the first, but did not wear a breastplate and used an elongated shield instead of a round shield. They stood directly behind the first line in the battle formation. The third and fourth classes were more lightly armed. They carried a spear and javelins (javelins) and stood respectively behind the second line, where they provided support with javelins.

The poorest citizens with property formed the fifth class. They were often too poor to afford full armament and were therefore armed as light troops, such as slingers with stones. Their task was to serve as a screen for the main army. They protected the army during the advance and concealed the movements of the troops.

Men without property, who therefore did not belong to the social classes of the adsidui, were exempt from military service because they were too poor to afford weapons. This group, known as the proletarii, was nevertheless deployed in times of great need. Their military value was likely limited by their lack of equipment and training.

The Regal Period of Rome marks the earliest period in the city's history. During this time, which according to tradition began in 753 BC, Rome was ruled by kings. The city was founded on the Palatine Hill, strategically located along the Tiber River in central Italy.

The kings played a crucial role in the early development of Rome. They not only established the city itself but also laid the basic for its political, military, and religious institutions. Each king contributed something to the growing city: from the establishment of sacred traditions to the construction of infrastructure such as temples and walls.

The monarchy came to an end around 509 BC, when the last king, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, was deposed. This marked the beginning of the Roman Republic, a new political system in which power was shared between magistrates and the senate. With the transition from monarchy to republic, Rome embarked on a new phase of expansion and political innovation that would make it a dominant power in the region.

There is little certainty about the events during the regal period, as no written sources or inscriptions from that period have survived. The stories that have reached us come from later times, such as the Republic and the Empire, and are largely based on oral tradition.

The traditional Roman history, as told by authors such as Livy, Plutarch, and Dionysius of Halicarnassus, describes how Rome during the regal period was ruled by a series of seven kings. According to the chronology of Varro and Fabius Pictor, their joint reign lasted 243 years, with an average reign of nearly 35 years per king.

Modern historians, however, dispute this traditional division. Much of Rome's early historiography was destroyed when the city was sacked by the Gauls in 390 BC after the Battle of the Allia. What remained was eventually lost to weathering or theft. As a result, the accounts of the kings are heavily dependent on later sources and must be critically examined.

The king fulfilled the role of Manu in the Proto-Indo-European creation story. He was the first priest and guardian of the cosmic order. The task of the Roman king was, on one hand, as the supreme commander of the warrior class. On the other hand, he fulfilled the role of high judge and chief priest. Even the king's power was limited. He was bound by the cosmic agreements of reciprocity. From this perspective, Roman society can be seen as Dharmic.

The story of Romulus and Remus forms the Roman variant of the Indo-European creation story. In it, Romulus assumes the role of Manu, just as Odin does in the Old Norse tradition. After Romulus, the Roman kings were chosen by the people of Rome, which consisted of different classes. These kings ruled for life and did not rely on military power to obtain or maintain their throne. Only one king broke with this tradition: Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, the last king of Rome. According to tradition, he seized power by overthrowing his predecessor and ruled as a negative tyrant.

After the founding of Rome, Romulus faced a severe shortage of women. During a festival, between 30 and 683 Sabine women were captured. When Romulus refused to return the women, war broke out. The Sabines made three failed attempts to attack Rome, but the women stopped the conflict during the Battle of the Lacus Curtius. This led to reconciliation and the establishment of a joint kingdom under Romulus and King Titus Tatius.

In addition to the war with the Sabines, Romulus also waged wars against cities such as the Fidenates and the Veientes. After a 37-year reign, he mysteriously disappeared at the age of 54 during a military inspection on the Campus Martius. According to legend, he was taken by a whirlwind to Olympus and deified as Quirinus, an important god of Rome. Initially, this was accepted, but later rumors spread that Romulus was murdered by the patricians. These rumors disappeared after a vision in which Romulus declared that he was now the god Quirinus.

After the death of Romulus, there was an interregnum of one year, during which ten senators took turns acting as temporary rulers. Under public pressure, the Senate chose Numa Pompilius, a Sabine, as successor due to his justice and piety. Numa's 43-year reign was marked by peace and religious reforms, such as the establishment of the temple for Janus, closing its doors as a sign of peace, and the founding of the Vestal Virgins, the Salii, and flamines.

The Roman Senate held significant power, based on prestige and respect. Although senatus consulta (decrees) were officially "advice," magistrates often followed them. As the empire grew, the Senate became increasingly influential, with control over the state treasury, foreign affairs, military deployment, and religious authority. However, in the 2nd century BC, the Senate steadily lost influence, especially after the death of Gaius Gracchus in 121 BC. Consequently, the Senate was granted the right to issue a senatus consultum ultimum, which gave magistrates the authority to do whatever was necessary to protect the state, regardless of legality.

Senators were usually appointed by the censors, who also selected new magistrates. Although status was not hereditary, the sons of former magistrates often had a greater chance of being elected. In times of crisis, a dictator was appointed to nominate senators. Towards the end of the Republic, men like Julius Caesar assumed this power for themselves.

Roman citizens with full rights, the optimo iure, had legal privileges such as the right to vote, marry, and hold office. Citizens gathered in various assemblies like the Comitia Centuriata, which elected magistrates with imperium, declared war, and handled legal cases. It was the highest judicial authority for certain legal matters.

When a king of Rome died, the city entered a period of interregnum. During this interim period, the highest power of the state resided with the Senate, which was responsible for finding a new king.

During the interregnum, the Senate appointed an interrex, a temporary ruler, for a term of five days to propose a new king. If no suitable candidate was found, another senator was chosen for a new term. Once a candidate was found, they were assessed by the Senate. Upon approval, the candidate was presented to the Curiate Assembly, where the election of the new king was conducted by the interrex.

In the Curiate Assembly, the citizens of Rome could accept or reject the proposed king. If the candidate was accepted, he was not yet immediately king. Two more actions had to take place before he fully received royal authority and power.

After his election, a king in Rome had to undergo two essential steps to be fully confirmed in his office.

First and foremost, it was necessary to obtain the approval of the gods for his appointment. This was done through an augural ceremony. An augur, a priest specialized in interpreting omens, guided the king-elect to the citadel. There, the future king was placed on a stone seat while the people waited below. If the omens were favorable, the augur announced that the gods had approved the new king, thereby confirming his priestly role.

The second step was obtaining the imperium, the highest power that belonged to the king. Although the vote of the Curiate Assembly had chosen the new king, this vote did not automatically grant him the associated powers. Therefore, the king had to propose a law to the Curiate Assembly to grant him the imperium. Only after a positive vote in the assembly did the king receive full royal power.

Although the king had considerable power, there were some limitations. He could seek advice from the Senate but was not obliged to follow it. The only significant decision for which he needed the approval of the Senate and the Curiate Assembly was declaring war against another nation.

This balance between power and consultation reflected the early pursuit of political structure and cooperation in the growing Rome, despite the absolute power that kings generally enjoyed.

The king of Rome had the imperium, which gave him both military power and the authority to administer justice. He acted as the chief judge of Rome and had the final say in all legal matters, both civil and criminal. Although he could appoint pontifices (priest-judges) to handle less important cases, he remained the highest authority in all legal proceedings. This made the king the focal point of authority in times of both war and peace.

Some writers argue that there was no possibility of appeal against the king's rulings. However, others believe that a patrician could submit an appeal request during a meeting of the Curiate Assembly. 

The king was assisted by a council that advised him during legal proceedings. However, this council had no authority over his decisions; the king remained the ultimate decision-maker. Furthermore, the king appointed two quaestores parricidi (crime detectives) to investigate crimes, and he appointed a special court of two judges (duumviri perduellionis) to handle cases of high treason.

According to the historian Livy, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, the seventh and last king of Rome, wielded a terrifying style of justice. He handled criminal cases, including death sentences, without the advice of his council. This sowed fear among those who wanted to challenge his authority and reinforced his reputation as a tyrant. His story contributed to the aversion that the Romans later had towards kingship. It would be contrary to the dharmic order that the Romans pursued. 

According to tradition, the Senate of Rome was established by Romulus, the founder of the city. He personally chose the most noble men – wealthy citizens with lawful wives and children – to serve as a council for the city. Thus, the Senate became the king's advisory body and functioned as a Council of State.

The Senate consisted of 300 senators, with 100 senators representing each of the three ancient tribes of Rome:

Ramnes (Latins)

Tities (Sabines)

Luceres (Etruscans)

Within each tribe, a senator was chosen from each of the ten curiae (subdivisions of a tribe). Although the king had the exclusive right to appoint the senators, this selection occurred according to ancient customs.

During the monarchy, the Senate had little power. The king held the majority of political power and could exercise it without the approval of the Senate. The main function of the Senate was to advise the king and coordinate legislation. When a proposal from the king was approved by the Curiate Assembly, the Senate could still approve or reject the proposal as law.

Traditionally, the king was obliged to seek the Senate's advice on important matters, but he determined which topics he discussed with them. He was also free to accept or ignore their advice.

The king was the only one who had the authority to convene the Senate. The only exception to this was during an interregnum, during which the Senate could convene itself to choose a new king.

Although the Senate primarily played a ceremonial and advisory role during this period, it formed the basic for the important political institution it would later become in the Republic.