Roman field signs

Within the Roman legion there were different types of field signs, each with its deeper meaning. 

The Aquilifer (Latin: aquilifer, literally "eagle-bearer", derived from aquila – eagle) was a military rank within the army of ancient Rome. This rank held the highest position within the group of standard bearers of a legion and had the primary task of guarding and carrying the aquila, the legion's eagle, during battles.

Before the reforms in the late Roman Republic , the legions used various animal symbols as the aquila. They used boars, wolves, and horses. This tradition possibly originated from the Proto-Indo-European koryos cult, where warriors in their coming-of-age ritual had to personally kill a boar, wolf, or bear. After this achievement, they would enter battles in an ecstatic warrior frenzy, taking on the form of these animals, which were revered for their aggression and cunning. They wore pelts of these animals, like the Germanic berserker and ulfheðinn. Roman veles and standard bearers also wore pelts of these animals. Originally, each legion had its own unique standard. However, after the reforms, a uniform standard was introduced for all legions: the aquila, a figure in the form of a small, gilded eagle became the personification of Jupiter, the supreme god and sky father. 

The eagle is the sacred animal of Jupiter and symbolizes his supremacy and prophetic power. In the Roman auspicia system, where birds were used to interpret the will of the gods (based on the Etruscans), the eagle had a special significance. Jupiter, originally a sky god, is often depicted with these symbols. A common image is that of an eagle holding a lightning bolt in its claws, a combination often seen on coins and other artifacts.

In the world of the Romans and other Indo-European cultures, there was no separation between the natural and the supernatural. The cosmos was seen as a living, animated unity in which humans, nature, gods, and the afterlife were interconnected in a hierarchical relationship. Every river had its nymph, every forest its spirit, and every ritual was in contact with the divine.

This dharmic cosmology  — a term that refers to a worldview based on order and reciprocity — determined all aspects of life, from religion and philosophy to magic, art, and warfare. Within this worldview, the veneration of the aquila must be seen. The eagle was not the symbol of Jupiter, but he personified the god himself, he was imbued with this sky father who watches over the prosperity of Rome. 

The golden (sometimes silver or bronze) eagle was carried on a high staff. Each legion had only one aquila and consequently only one aquilifer, bearer of the aquila. The loss of this eagle was considered a disastrous disgrace and insult to Jupiter. It usually led to the disbandment of the entire legion. The aquilifer therefore carried enormous responsibility.

Although the aquilifer was ranked below the centurio’s (centurions), he was still considered one of the highest officers within the legion. He enjoyed respect and authority, partly because he received double pay. Besides his role on the battlefield, the aquilifer also fulfilled administrative and logistical functions. Outside of combat, he was responsible for the legion's finances. He acted as quartermaster and treasurer, managed the legion's funds, and oversaw the payment of savings to the soldiers. He may have been assigned this role because the aquilifer, by carrying the aquila, functioned as a catalyst between the legion and Jupiter himself. 

In this worldview, where the aquilifer traded his humanity as an intermediary of the god Jupiter, he might sometimes have worn a larva-mask , often crafted in the likeness of a Roman deified hero or Alexander the Great. Moreover, he was adorned with a bear or lion skin, although it is not excluded that a hide of a boar or wolf was used.

Within the military formation, the aquilifer traditionally positioned himself in the first centuria of the first manipulus of the first cohort. He was effectively assisted in this position by the Primus Pilus, the highest rank of centurion within a legion.

Regarding their appearance, there are various sources. In most preserved images, aquilifers are depicted with uncovered heads, without a helmet or animal skins. However, several tombstones show that aquilifers often wore a lion or bear skin over their helmet. The paws of these skins were then tied around the neck – a distinctive feature of their office. Additionally, the aquilifer could likely wear a larva-mask. Their armament typically consisted of a Gladius (short sword), Pugio (dagger), Parma (small, round shield). For protection, they usually wore Lorica hamata (chain mail) or Lorica squamata (scaled armor), with an officer's subarmalis (protective undergarment) underneath, decorated with pteruges – leather or fabric fringes on the shoulders and thighs.

Their military status was also indicated by the cingulum, a broad belt with metal decoration. This could be worn in various ways: with or without suspensoria (hanging straps), with two separate belts, like the ‘cowboy belt’ or with suspensoria attached directly to the end of the cingulum. Additionally, aquilifers also wore phalerae – medals worn on the chest as a sign of merit. 

The status of aquilifer was much greater than that of an ordinary standard-bearer. He embodied the honor, spirit, and identity of the entire legion. As long as the aquila remained upright on the battlefield, the morale of the legion remained intact. It was a visible beacon of courage and loyalty to Jupiter and Rome. Therefore, the aquilifer bore not only a physical weight on his shoulders but also an immense symbolic burden—that of the entire Roman Empire. Aquilifers were likely chosen from legionaries who excelled in heroic deeds.

Besides the aquila, there were several other field signs that were always carried by the legion.

The signifer was a standard-bearer who carried the field sign of the centurion on the battlefield. A legion had 59 signifers. He also wore a bear or wolf skin and might have worn a larva mask. The signum contained various phalerae, distinctions earned by the respective centurion. The signifer was less important than the aquilifer but important enough to wear equipment originally derived from the ecstatic koryos ritual. 

The Vexillarii were standard bearers of a unit. This could also be outside the legion, such as cavalry and auxiliary units. 

The vexillum was a rectangular banner made of wool or linen, often with geometric motifs. In the center were the symbol or the initials of the legion, painted or embroidered.

Only one preserved example remains, from the 2nd–3rd century AD, made of linen (53 × 51 cm). It depicts the goddess Victoria on a globe and is attached to a reed stem. The banner is considered Roman. The vexillarius also wore a bear or wolf pelt over his helmet.

The imaginifer was a type of standard bearer in the Roman army who carried the emperor's portrait into battle. This served as a constant reminder of the soldiers' loyalty to the emperor.

This form of standard bearer emerged in the legions after the introduction of the imperial cult, during the reign of Octavian Augustus. The so-called imago was a three-dimensional portrait of the emperor, made of colored metal, which was carried exclusively in the first cohort, along with the aquila (eagle).

The imaginifer also wore a bear or wolf skin over the helmet, with the paws tied around the neck.

Their armament consisted of a gladius (sword) and a pugio (dagger). For protection, they wore a lorica hamata (chain mail) or lorica squamata (scale armor), and a parma (small round shield), which was carried to the side on a belt.