Pagan symbolism: Spiral Motifs

Spiral motifs are among the oldest symbols incorporated by humanity into art. They were used in Europe from the late Ice Age and remained popular into the early Middle Ages. Even today, these motifs are still cherished. But what is the actual meaning of these patterns? In this blog, we delve into the fascinating history of European spiral motifs.

Geometric motifs, such as spirals, appear worldwide in prehistoric art. Although their precise meaning often remains a mystery, there are indications that these patterns have both universal and cultural origins. They could refer to deeply rooted neurological processes, but also to spiritual or practical ideas that varied between civilizations.

It is unclear when humans exactly began creating spiral motifs, but they can be found in many parts of the world. Examples from Mal'ta, Siberia, are as much as 18,000 years old and were made in the late Ice Age. The Serpent Mound burial mound, Ohio, United States, is over 2000 years old and ends in a spiral.

There are various theories about the origin of these patterns. Some suggest that spiral motifs stem from a standard neurological response of the brain, which was then converted into art. Other theories suggest that shamans saw these motifs during hallucinations, caused by trance, drugs, or stimulation of the visual cortex, where similar patterns often appear. These inner images, which can be considered universal, might have inspired prehistoric artists.

An alternative hypothesis is that spiral motifs, like symbols such as the swastika, the sun cross, and the tree of life, spread from Siberia during the Ice Age, when peoples migrated to the areas from which the Native Americans originated. However, this theory does not explain why spiral motifs also occur in Polynesia and Africa.

Another possibility is that spiral motifs have an even much older origin, possibly at least 70,000 years ago, when humans migrated from Africa to other continents. However, this theory is difficult to prove.

Interestingly, spirals are hardly found in European art from the Late Paleolithic (40,000–12,000 BC), while they were so prominently present in later periods. Paleolithic art was more figurative than abstract.

This raises interesting questions about the sources of inspiration for early artists. Were altered states of consciousness, often associated with shamanistic visions, perhaps not yet common at that time? Or did other cultural and artistic preferences play a role?

Spirals were favored geometric motifs during the Late Neolithic and are primarily found in regions along the Atlantic coast, such as Spain, Portugal, Brittany, and Ireland. Around 3,000 BC, Neolithic farmers brought this tradition, along with their monumental building style, from Brittany to the British Isles. 

The fertility of the land played a central role in Neolithic religion, along with the sun that brought this fertility. The belief revolved around the cyclical change of seasons: after the harvest began the season of the dead, after which during the winter solstice the sun once again showed its power and brought fertility back to the land.

Spiral motifs existed in both left- and right-turning variants and possibly had a symbolic meaning. They could represent the sun, sun rays, or the changing seasons. Other theories suggest that the spirals depicted a gateway to a spiritual world, or the cycle of life and death. Additionally, they are sometimes interpreted as instruments for measuring time, such as the seasons and solstices. Many Neolithic monuments, such as stone circles and burial mounds, are precisely aligned with the position of the sun during solstices and equinoxes.

A striking example of this is Brú na Bóinne and Newgrange in Ireland, where during the winter solstice the rising sun shines precisely through the entrance of the monument. The famous Stonehenge in southern England is also aligned with the solstice. 

The spirals on the kerbstones of such monuments are partly seen as calendar systems, used to track lunar and solar cycles.

Between 3000 and 2500 BC, the Proto-Indo-European steppe herders migrated from the Pontic steppes to Europe. Their society was based on livestock farming, where they moved with their herds from pasture to pasture. These herders had a dharmic nature religion. How the Proto-Indo-Europeans and the indigenous Neolithic farmers merged remains a mystery, but the process likely involved a combination of marriage, assimilation, and conflict. In some regions, the steppe herders replaced up to 90% of the Neolithic DNA.

The Proto-Indo-Europeans were physically larger than the Neolithic farmers, rode horses, and experimented with bronze weapons, such as axes. Their culture is characterized by a strong hierarchical structure and an oath-bound warrior culture. However, they did not only have hostile relations with the Neolithic peoples; they also adopted traditions and rituals from them, including the worship of agricultural goddesses. The Old Norse pantheon of the Vanir gods, such as Freyr, Freya, and Njörð, with their emphasis on fertility, agriculture, and abundance, is possibly influenced by a Neolithic origin. Similar associations are found with deities like Cybele and the Greek goddess Demeter.

Proto-Indo-European men paired with Neolithic women children, leading to the development of new cultures, such as the Corded Ware culture. The Proto-Indo-Europeans likely also adopted Neolithic spiral motifs, including the associated symbolism. These motifs, embodying fertility, cycles, and nature, were possibly integrated into their own religious and cultural traditions.

Between circa 3000-2500 BC, the Proto-Indo-European steppe herders migrated from the Pontic steppes towards Europe.

We do not know how the steppe herders and Stone Age farmers merged with each other. This was probably a combination of intermarriages, cultural assimilation, and warfare. In some areas, the steppe herders replaced up to 90% of the Neolithic DNA. 

The society of the steppe herders was hierarchical, oath-bound, and focused on individual acts of war. But they did not only wage war with their new neighbors. They adopted traditions and rituals from them, such as agricultural and fertility goddesses. The Old Norse Vanir possibly descend from Neolithic gods. The Vanir gods Freyr, Freya, and Njörd are directly linked to fertility, agriculture, and abundance. The goddesses Cybele and Demeter may also have a local Neolithic origin.

The steppe herders probably also adopted the Neolithic spiral motifs, including the triskelion. 

In Indo-European mythology, the sun is often depicted as a radiant wheel, drawn by a horse and resting in a chariot. An example of this is the Trundholm sun chariot from 1500-1300 BC. Fragments of a similar sun chariot have been found in a burial mound in Jægersborg Hegn, Denmark.

The sun is also depicted as a sun cross or sun disk. These symbols are regularly engraved with spiral motifs, possibly stylized sun rays.

In Indo-European religion, the cosmic order was central. The sun plays an essential role as a marker of the seasons, the transition between day and night, and life and death. As a result, the sun became a symbol of order, fertility, and life. Darkness, on the other hand, stood for chaos and death. Light, with the sun as its main source, was seen as the embodiment of cosmic harmony and vitality.

Various Proto-Indo-European deities were associated with the sun and other celestial bodies:

• *Seh₂ul (Old Norse Sól): the god or goddess of the sun, who brings life and maintains order.
• *Meh₁not (Old Norse Máni): the god of the moon, associated with the cycles of time and the rhythm of nature.
• *H₂éwsōs (West Germanic Eostre): the goddess of the dawn, who brings the light of morning and symbolizes the beginning of a new day.

These mythological representations emphasize how important the sun and other celestial bodies were in the worldview of the Indo-Europeans. The use of spiral motifs on sun discs underscores the symbolic relationship between the sun, light, and the cyclical nature of time and life.

In the late Bronze Age, spiral motifs remained popular and played an important role in the art of that time. From the late Bronze Age cultures, the Hallstatt A and B cultures developed, which are considered the first expressions of what would later be known as Celtic culture.

The art of the Celtic Hallstatt period (800–500 BC) is characterized by strict, geometric patterns, in which spiral motifs were often used, for example on fibulae (cloak pins). Other civilizations, such as the Greeks and the Etruscans, also used spiral motifs in their fibulae and pottery.

From the 5th century BC, a new Celtic art style emerged: the La Tène style. This style was partly influenced by the art of the Greeks, Etruscans, and Scythians, but developed a completely unique character. In La Tène art, abstract patterns are often intertwined with leaf motifs, lotus leaves, and spiral motifs, giving this style a unique appearance.

Although the exact meaning of many symbols from La Tène art is still a subject of debate, it is clear that these held deep symbolic value for the Celts. Spiral motifs, often in abstract or intertwined forms, were depicted on various objects, such as on weapons, jewelry, and shields.

A striking example is a relief from Bormio, Italy, from the 5th century BC, depicting a Celtic warrior. On his shield, spiral motifs are present, possibly inspired by Etruscan art.

Later examples of La Tène spiral motifs can be found on a sword scabbard from Wisbech from the 3rd century BC and a shield from the 2nd–3rd century BC, found in the River Witham in Lincolnshire.

The La Tène style introduced a more abstract approach to spiral motifs. These were often intricately intertwined with other decorative elements, such as stylized leaves and organic patterns. This refined style reflects an advanced artistic tradition, where ancient symbolism was combined with new forms of expression.

Spiral motifs thus remained an important part of Celtic art and culture, while simultaneously evolving in form.

In the art of the Migration Period, spiral motifs were once again widely applied, albeit in different art styles and often in a more stylized form than in the Celtic La Tène art style. These motifs were prominently present in the Germanic art styles, including the Anglo-Saxon art. The exact meaning remains unknown here as well.

The Germanic and Celtic peoples made little use of writing, not because they could not write, but because their knowledge and stories were primarily transmitted orally. 

These art forms were often exclusively intended for the aristocratic, scholarly, and warrior classes, who knew and transmitted mythological stories and meanings by heart.

The spiral motifs in Germanic art were often combined with depictions of wild animals, mythical monsters such as dragons, and sometimes human figures or gods, suggesting that these designs had a symbolic or mythological meaning.

Around the 5th century AD, Christianity was introduced in Celtic Ireland and Anglo-Saxon England. Christian symbolism was integrated into the traditional knotwork. 

Despite the religious transition, spiral motifs remained popular, as evidenced by the decorations in the Lindisfarne Gospels and the Book of Kells, where spiral motifs are often combined with knots, animals, and other decorative patterns.

From the Germanic art styles, the art styles of the Vikings later developed. Although the Vikings also used spiral motifs, these were often more stylized and differed significantly from the spiral motifs of earlier periods. 

The Viking style emphasized dynamic and complex designs, where spirals were integrated into patterns with animals and mythological themes, but with a completely unique aesthetic approach.

The ongoing popularity of spiral motifs across different cultures and periods highlights their enduring symbolic and artistic value, which was repeatedly reinterpreted within the context of changing traditions and religions.

On the Swedish island of Gotland, there are some remarkable Germanic stones dating from the 6th century AD. These stones display spiral motifs, often combined with depictions of ibexes, horses, and sometimes dancing people. In some cases, the horses fight each other, possibly referring to the semi-ritual sport Hestavíg, where the strongest stallions were selected for breeding.

The stones are clearly associated with the sun cult, with the spiral motifs symbolically linked to the power of the sun. The horse played an important role as a status symbol, but also as a symbol of fertility and the land. The fertility of horses was considered dependent on sunlight, peaking during the summer solstice when the sun's power was felt most strongly.

The ibex, which mates between October and January, is often depicted on the stones. The loud fight between male ibexes, where they clash their horns, marks the breeding period and symbolizes fertility and the winter solstice. Thus, in this context, the ibex represents fertility and the darkness of winter giving way to the light of the coming summer.

There is insufficient evidence to definitively determine what spiral motifs mean and whether they carried the same symbolism for different peoples. These motifs may have originated in the shamanistic Mesolithic, the Ice Age, or even earlier. It is unclear whether spiral motifs arose independently of each other or were mutually influenced. In art history, it is often assumed that artistic expressions are rarely unique, and we believe that these motifs were likely (in)directly influenced by each other.

From the Neolithic to the early Middle Ages, spiral motifs are often associated with sun worship. We assume that in some cases, artists referred to the sun with the use of spiral motifs, but there are also instances where the spiral has a different meaning or was simply used to fill empty space.

The introduction of agriculture in the Neolithic was in fact more of a large-scale experiment than a sudden change. Agriculture brought uncertainty; climate changes and droughts caused crop failures and famine. The sun, fertile land, and rain were vital to the Neolithic population, and these natural forces were central to their religious rituals.

For the Proto-Indo-European steppe herders, sun worship was not a new concept; they already had their own sun cult. However, their interests differed from those of the Neolithic farmers, leading to a shift in worldviews, partly due to marriages between Neolithic women and Indo-European steppe herders. From this period, and certainly until the end of the Hallstatt period, we can recognize a clear association between spiral motifs and sun worship in some cases.

In the La Tène period and the early Middle Ages, it is more difficult to see this association. Yet, the sixth-century stones of Gotland emphasize the connection between spiral motifs and sun worship so strongly, that we are inclined to think that in these periods, Neolithic and Indo-European sun worship was still present, albeit in an assimilated form adapted to the specific Germanic, Celtic, or Slavic cultural contexts of the period.