The gladius

The gladius was a short Roman sword designed for thrusting and slashing. In this blog, we will discuss the different types of gladii and from whom the Romans adopted them.

A fully equipped Roman legionary, after the Social War (91–88 BC), was armed with a sword (gladius), a shield (scutum), one or two throwing spears (pila), often a dagger (pugio). Traditionally, soldiers threw pila to create chaos in the enemy line before executing a charge. During the charge, the gladius was drawn. 

During the First Punic War (264–241 BC) in Sicily, the Roman armies first came into contact with Iberian warriors who fought as mercenaries for Carthage. The Iberians were known at the time for the design and production of high-quality weapons, particularly the gladius Hispaniensis, the 'Spanish sword'.

Although Polybius mentions that the gladius was adopted by the Romans during the Second Punic War, his own account shows that the weapon was already in use during the Gallic invasion of 225 BC. The gladius likely replaced the La Tène type B sword that the Romans had adopted from the Celts after the sack of Rome in 390 BC.

The pointed shape of the gladius and the short length were necessary because cuts were difficult to execute in close formation. For the same reason, the Spartans of the 5th century BC also preferred an extra-short xiphos. Outside the close infantry formation, the gladius was in many respects less effective than Celtic swords.

The gladius was used by the Romans as the primary weapon of the infantry until the second half of the 2nd century AD, after which it was displaced by the spatha. This change was influenced by broader developments in the Roman Empire, such as improvements in metallurgy, changes in infantry military tactics, and the shift in Rome's typical adversaries. The spatha became the main type of sword during the Migration Period and later evolved into the swords of the Vendel and Carolingian types.

Gladius is generally considered a Celtic loanword in Latin (possibly via an Etruscan intermediary), derived from the ancient Celtic kladi(b)os or kladimos "sword" (hence the modern Welsh cleddyf "sword", modern Breton klezeff, Old Irish claideb, modern Irish claidheamh [itself possibly a loanword from Welsh]; the root of the word may have been preserved in the Old Irish verb claidid "digs, excavates" and is earlier found in the Gaulish-Brittonic place name elements cladia/clado "ditch, trench, valley").

Probably, the Celtic La Tène type B sword was still used until and partly during the 2nd Punic War. These were adopted during the reforms after the Celtic sack of Rome in the 4th century BC. Also, until the 3rd century BC, the Greek xiphos was still used, although it had long been falling out of use. The most likely origin of the gladius is the adoption of the design from the Celtiberians, which is supported by the form of the weapon.

In the early Roman Republic, the gladius was relatively long, just like the La Tène type B swords. The most popular type from that time, the so-called "Spanish type," had a blade of 60–65 cm. Over time, as the Roman armies evolved and the gladius was adapted to the combat tactics of the legions, the swords became shorter. The lengths varied from 65 cm for the largest "Spanish type" swords to 45 cm for the later and smaller "Pompeii" types.

From the second quarter of the 2nd century AD, as an alternative to the Pompeii gladii, swords with Sarmatian hilts became popular (known for their ring-shaped pommel). In the third quarter of the century, spatha swords of the "Lauriac-Grummock" type emerged. By the beginning of the 3rd century, the spatha was the main sword in the Roman army. Nevertheless, the gladius did not completely disappear: it remained in use for gladiatorial combats, as evidenced by iconographic sources from the 3rd and 4th centuries AD.

Over a long period, the gladius changed. It was continuously modified according to the type of warfare. Today, different types of the ancient Roman sword are distinguished:

The earliest and most common type. Total length: 75–85 cm, blade: 60–65 cm, blade width: 5 cm, weight: approximately 900–1000 g. The blade has a distinctive leaf shape with a curvature. Used between 216 BC and 25 BC.

This type has an elongated point and a slight "waist" in the blade. Total length: 65–70 cm, blade: 50–55 cm, blade width: 7 cm, weight: approximately 800 g. The type is named after the find in the vicinity of Mainz, Germany. Used between 13 BC and the beginning of the 2nd century AD.

This type resembles the Mainz type but has a triangular point and a narrower blade. Total length: 65–70 cm, blade: 50–55 cm, blade width: 6 cm, weight: approximately 700 g. It was first found in Fulham, Great Britain. This type is often considered a variant of the Mainz type. Used between 25 AD and 100 AD.

This type has a blade with parallel edges and a triangular point and closely resembles the spatha, but is shorter. The Pompeii-gladius was developed from the Mainz type. The point is usually less pronounced, while the blade is thinner and shorter, with parallel edges. Total length: 60–65 cm, blade: 45–50 cm, blade width: 5 cm, weight: approximately 700 g. It was used from the 1st to the 2nd century AD, but was displaced by the spatha at the beginning of the 3rd century. It was named after the find in the ruins of Pompeii. This type is the lightest and thinnest of the gladii.

The construction of the gladius primarily makes it a thrusting weapon. However, there is some debate whether the gladius was used solely as a thrusting weapon or also as a weapon for cutting. Various sources describe how the gladius was used for both. 

Polybius described the gladius as follows:
"The gladius has a sturdy, strong blade, and can both thrust and cut excellently." He further stated that the Romans in battles, when fighting with a sword, used both hacking and thrusting.

Dionysius of Halicarnassus also described cutting:
"They cut the tendons of the enemy below the knees or at the ankles and toppled them."

By the end of the 2nd century, the gladius is mainly seen as a thrusting weapon, but there are indications that it was also used for cutting in gladiatorial combat, where it was employed as a versatile weapon in various forms of combat.

The function of the grip, as with other swords, was partly to protect the hand, to reinforce the sword, and to provide support during a thrusting attack (the primary form of attack). The grip was obviously intended for holding the sword.

The so-called "pommel" (the spherical knob at the back of the handle) presumably served to shift the center of gravity towards the handle by a larger, spherical end (counterweight). Although some found pommels are made of wood or bone, and these materials are not capable of significantly changing the center of gravity, archaeological finds suggest that the main function of the pommel was the ease of holding, so that the hand would not slip down during a strike.

The blade of the gladius had a fairly wide cutting edge to be suitable for both cutting and deep thrusting. It was primarily used for formation fighting. It was possible to hack with the gladius, but the ultimate intention was always to kill the enemy with a powerful thrusting attack, for which the gladius was originally designed.

Scabbards were an essential part of the gladius. They were used for storing the sword and quickly drawing it in dense formation, with the sword usually worn on the right side of the soldier so that he did not have to swing when drawing his sword. This prevented injury to the person next to him. The scabbard was attached with straps that were threaded through rings on the scabbard. Sometimes the straps had buckles to make donning and removing the scabbard easier. From the 1st century AD, the gladius was worn on its own shoulder strap. Before this time, it was attached to the balteus.

Gladii were usually made of steel, although bronze examples have also been found. These may have had more ceremonial value. From the end of the 2nd century AD, and especially in the 3rd century, swords were manufactured from forged steel using the process of Damascus steel. The higher quality of steel played a role in the shift to longer sword types such as the spatha.

Roman swords were made of steel with varying carbon contents. This ranged between 0.02% and 2.14% carbon. The more carbon, the harder and stronger the steel, but it also made it more brittle. Research on Roman swords suggests that the Romans used two different materials for the manufacture of their swords: a softer core and a harder outer layer, which made the cutting edge stronger without the sword breaking in combat.

Near the village of Almedinilla (province of Córdoba), remains of an Iberian village were found. Excavations from 2006-2009 provided new insights into the events of the 2nd century BC (during the 2nd Punic War). Archaeologists discovered clear traces of burning. In this context, the remains of two men were found, both showing signs of a violent death. The first man had lost his right shoulder due to a strong blow with a gladius. The second had lost his arm and had other injuries from a sword. It is unclear whether an early type of gladius or La Tène type B swords were used.

There are also other skeletons, but these are much less well preserved. It is difficult to say exactly what happened here in antiquity, but it probably relates to the events of the Lusitanian War (155 BC - 139 BC) and the consequences of the campaigns of Quintus Fabius Maximus Servilianus.

Other examples of the use of the gladius were found during the investigation of the remains of soldiers who perished in the Sertorian War in Valencia (75 BC). Apparently, the favorite work of the Roman legions was severing limbs with a single blow. In one of the soldiers, both arms and legs were chopped off. In another soldier, both arms and also his head were severed, the head was thrown to his feet. Or rather, where they should have been, because they too were severed.

On reliefs, the gladius is depicted both with thrusting and cutting movements. Usually, we can see in images both the moment of the thrust attack and the moments when one prepares for a thrust attack from a defensive stance.