Pagan symbolism: Germanic and Viking dragons

In the ancient Germanic In ancient languages, the term for dragon was used for worm or serpent (Old English: wyrm, Old Norse: ormʀ, Old High German: wurm). In the broader Germanic mythology and folklore, dragons are often depicted as large, venomous serpents that hoard gold. In later stories, they increasingly resembled other European dragons, for example, they acquired wings.

Famous "worms" from medieval Germanic works include the dragon defeated by Beowulf, Fáfnir from the Völsung cycle, Níðhöggr, and the great sea serpent Jǫrmungandr. Additionally, there are subcategories such as lindworms and sea serpents (Swedish: sjöorm).

The dragon was the mythical variant of the serpent. The reputation of dragons possibly dates back more than 70,000 years and finds its origins in Africa, likely due to conflicts between humans and serpents. From these early stories, dragons spread worldwide, even to Australia. In European mythology, dragons often retained a serpent-like appearance until the early Middle Ages. This was because they were originally water creatures, possibly playing a role in the first myths about rain and floods. During droughts, dragons were often blamed for the lack of water. This became particularly evident when agriculture began to rise in Anatolia.

Around 3000 BC, the Proto-Indo-Europeans migrated from the Pontic-Caspian steppe to Europe. In doing so, they laid the basic for cultures such as the Vikings, Romans, Greeks and Celts. Based on basic of archaeology, comparative religious studies, and historical linguistics, we know a lot about the society of the Proto-Indo-European steppe herders. We have even been able to reconstruct part of their mythology.

In the Proto-Indo-European creation story, the first man, *Manu, and his twin brother *Yemo travel through the universe, accompanied by a primordial cow. To create the world, Manu sacrifices his brother. 

With the help of celestial gods, Manu makes the earth and humanity from Yemo's body. As a result, Manu becomes the first priest. From Yemo's body, the social classes emerge: priests from his head, warriors from his chest and arms, and farmers from his legs.

The third man, *Trito, receives sacred cattle from the gods as a gift. However, a three-headed serpent, *Ngwhi, steals them. With the help of the Storm God, Trito defeats the serpent. He returns the cattle to a priest so they can be sacrificed.

Thus, dragons symbolized the theft of cattle, a major threat in a society based on cattle herding. Fortunately, there were heroic warriors who retrieved the cattle from the dragons. These warriors, often associated with the koryos (bands of young warriors), also used this story as justification to raid cattle from enemy tribes: after all, the cattle were "stolen by dragons" and thus the enemy had no right to them.

Over the centuries, dragons also took on other roles: they not only stole cattle but also women or young maidens, and centuries later they amassed gold and other treasures. The association between dragons and treasures is common in Germanic literature.

In early Germanic sources, the distinction between dragons and ordinary snakes is vague. Both are referred to with terms like ormr (Old Norse) or wyrm (Old English), derived from the Proto-Germanic *wurmiz. The word wyrm was later reborrowed into modern English as "dragon," while the word worm can still refer to dragons, especially those without wings.

In the Fáfnismál , Fáfnir is described as a flying snake-like creature and referred to as an ormr. In the later Völsunga saga, Fáfnir gains shoulders, which may indicate legs, wings, or both, and he is called both dreki (dragon) and ormr . Similarly, the dragon in Beowulf is called both a wyrm and a draca . In some sources, such as Ketils saga hœngs and the 14th-century Konráðs saga keisarasonar, ormar (snakes) and drekar (dragons) are sometimes depicted as different creatures. Winged dragons in these stories are often called flogdreka (flying dragons).

The terms dreki (Old Norse) and draca (Old English) mean "dragon, sea serpent or sea monster" and are derived from the Proto-Germanic *drakō, which in turn is borrowed from the Latin draco, meaning "enormous snake or dragon."

The evolution of the wingless, legless worms and tapeworms into the four-legged, winged dragons in Germanic folklore and literature is likely influenced by continental Europe. This change was facilitated by Christianization and the wider availability of translated romances. Therefore, it is suggested that the description in Völuspá of Níðhöggr as a winged and feathered creature is a later addition, possibly arising from the combination of pagan and Christian imagery.

To bridge the ambiguities in categorizing Germanic dragons, the term drakorm has been proposed. This term refers to creatures described as both dreki (dragon) and ormr (snake).

According to Germanic folklore and literature, dragons with a poisonous breath appeared earlier than fire-breathing dragons. This aligns with the theory that Germanic dragons were originally snakes, some of which are venomous.

The Nine Herbs Charm tells of nine plants used to combat the poison of a writhing wyrm. In this story, Wōden defeats the wyrm by striking it with nine twigs, causing the creature to break into nine pieces. In the Edda poetry, both Fáfnir and the sea serpent Jörmungandr have a poisonous breath. In Gylfaginning it is told that Thor will kill Jörmungandr during Ragnarök, but will die himself after taking nine steps due to the serpent's poison.

A similar creature from later Orcadian folklore is the poisonous stoorworm. This was defeated by the hero Assipattle and sank into the sea, creating Iceland, Orkney, Shetland, and the Faroe Islands. In British tales of wyrms, the dragon is killed by burning its entrails with peat.

One of the earliest examples of a fire-breathing dragon is found in Beowulf. Yet, this dragon is also referred to as "the poison plague" (attorsceaðan). Another dragon in the poem is also associated with fire: it melts from its own heat after being defeated by Sigmund.

In later chivalric sagas, such as the Sigurðr saga þögla and the Nikolaus saga erkibiskups II (circa 1340 AD), dragons breathe both fire and poison. In the latter text, the dragon is even sent by God to compel an English deacon to pious behavior.

In Beowulf Sigemund (in Old Norse tradition the father of Sigurð) kills a dragon and takes its treasure.

Later in the poem, another dragon is awakened when someone steals a cup from its treasure-filled burial mound. The dragon takes revenge by attacking the Geats. Beowulf fights it and protects himself with a metal shield. Although the dragon is killed by Wiglaf, a follower of Beowulf, Beowulf succumbs to the poisonous wound inflicted by the dragon. The dragon's treasure is reburied in Beowulf's burial mound as a symbol of his legacy.

In the Völsung cycle, Fáfnir was originally a dwarf. After claiming a treasure, including the magical ring Andvaranaut, he transformed into a dragon. His brother Regin used broken pieces of sword to make the sword Gram and gave it to the hero Sigurð. Sigurð hid in a pit and waited for the dragon to slither over it, so he could pierce its underbelly with the sword. As Fáfnir died, he spoke with Sigurð and shared valuable mythological knowledge. Sigurð then cooked and tasted the dragon's heart. This enabled him to understand the language of birds, who warned him of Regin's betrayal. Sigurð killed Regin and took the treasure for himself.

Jörmungandr is also known as the Midgard Serpent (Miðgarðsormr). He is a giant sea serpent that encircles the entire world and bites his own tail. He is the son of Loki and the jötun Angrboða. The thunder god Thor is his arch-enemy. In a popular story, Thor goes fishing with the giant Hymir. Since Hymir did not bring bait, Thor uses the head of one of Hymir's oxen. Jörmungandr bites the bait, and Thor pulls the serpent upwards. Jörmungandr spits venom and Thor grabs his hammer to put an end to it, but Hymir cuts the line and Jörmungandr disappears back into the sea.

During Ragnarök, Thor will kill Jörmungandr, but will die from his venom himself.

Níðhöggr is a dragon described in the Edda's. He gnaws at the roots of the world tree Yggdrasil. This motif also appears in Persian religion, where the evil spirit Ahriman sends frogs, salamanders, and snakes to poison the world tree, the Gaokerena.

Níðhöggr devours the corpses of the damned on Náströnd, the place of the dead in the underworld.

In Gesta Danorum A dragon is described that is slain by Frotho I. The dragon guards a mountain and its treasure. Frotho I kills the beast and takes the treasure. A similar story tells how Friðleifr kills a dragon, which shows parallels with the story of Frotho I.

Many other sagas tell of dragons, such as the Þiðreks-saga, Örvar-Odds-saga and Sigrgarðs-saga frækna. In these stories, dragons often play the role of monsters that must be overcome by heroes, often as a symbol of courage, strength, or greed.

J.R.R. Tolkien argued in Beowulf: The Monsters and the Critics that the only dragons of significance in northern literature are Fáfnir and the dragon from Beowulf.

Other scholars, such as Kathryn Hume, argued that the abundance of dragons and other supernatural beings in later chivalric sagas made these monsters mere props, intended to be defeated by heroes.

Viking drakkars, ships from the Middle Ages, often had figureheads in the form of dragon heads. According to a version of the Icelandic Landnámabók, an old pagan law required that the figurehead of a ship be removed before they came into view of the land. This was to prevent the landvættir (guardian spirits of the land) from being frightened.

Stave churches in Scandinavia were also often decorated with carved dragon heads. These decorations are thought to have had an apotropaic function, intended to ward off evil.

Medieval depictions of dragons or serpents appear both in Sweden and on the British Isles. Swedish runestones from the 11th century often show serpents, with the runic text placed around the body of the dragon. Notable examples are

• Sigurð stones such as U 1163, Sö 101 (Rasmund-stone) and Sö 327 (Gök inscription). These stones depict Sigurð killing Fáfnir, as described in the Völsunga saga.
• Four stone crosses on the Isle of Man depict similar scenes. A now lost fragment from the church of Kirby Hill in England may also have contained an image of Fáfnir's death.
• Wood carvings from the stave church of Hylestad depict scenes from the Völsunga saga, including Sigurð killing Fáfnir. Notably, Fáfnir is depicted here with two legs and two wings, showing that the dragon in later representations gained more characteristics of the classical European dragon.
• The fishing from the Hymiskviða, in which Thor catches the Midgard Serpent Jörmungandr, is possibly shown on various stones from Scandinavia and England. Examples include the Altuna runestone in Sweden and the Hørdum-stone in Denmark. On these stones, Thor is often depicted in a boat while trying to pull up the enormous serpent.

The Christian reception of the story of Fáfnir, despite its pagan origins, has led to various interpretations and adaptations. The story of Sigurð was often presented as a historical narrative after the Christianization of Scandinavia, separate from its pagan roots. This presentation was possibly influenced by Christian symbolism, where Sigurð was seen as a kind of soldier of Christ, overcoming evil in the form of Fáfnir. This new interpretation emphasized the moral aspect of the story and avoided the 'pagan' elements such as treasures, curses, and revenge.

Moreover, parallels were drawn between Sigurð and Christian figures, such as the archangel Michaell, who fights against the serpent of the Apocalypse, and Saint George, who slays the dragon. This led to Sigurð being identified in some cases with Jesus or Michaell, as part of a Christian attempt to integrate the old faith into the new religious context.

In England, the story of Sigurð might also have been used by Tostig, Earl of Northumbria, as part of his genealogical claim. He claimed to be descended from the hero Sigurð, which strengthened his political legitimacy. Such genealogical claims were widely made.

It is possible that the carvings of Sigurð and Fáfnir were sometimes used as a way to honor the dead. By comparing the deceased to a famous hero, their courage and status were praised, further emphasizing the importance of these hero stories in the context of funeral rituals.

Dragons were the mythical variant of the serpent and were included in the earliest myths of modern humans. With the spread of humanity, dragon mythology also migrated across the world.

Among many Indo-European peoples, dragons play a prominent role in their mythologies. In Germanic and later Viking mythology, dragons are seen as all-destroying monsters. At the same time, they symbolize the evil beast that must be defeated by a hero. These two archetypes – the destroyer and the hero's opponent – reinforce each other.

The dragon does not represent the Christian separation between good and evil but a more dharmic view in which dangerous adversaries are necessary to enable heroic deeds. Thus, the dragon encourages heroic acts and symbolizes courage. At the same time, people also identify with the dragon, as with the Viking dragon ships (drakkars), where the dragon projected a threat: "this dragon comes for you."

Dragon motifs on jewelry and other objects often had a protective function, intended to defend the wearer. Dragons thus symbolize both heroic deeds and the protection of their allies. Dragons are often combined with wolves, which connects the combativeness of the wolf with the protective power of the dragon.